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re 

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et  de  haut  en  bas.  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mithode. 


errata 
I  to 

t 

I  pelure. 

on  A 


n 

32X 


12  3 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

I 


TO 


MAJOR  JOHN    WESLEY    POWELL, 

T.  ui„.e  .ftinen,  vork  o.  Director  of  the  liuremc  of  '.Uneriron  KthnoU.^j 

slu<trnl.-<  of  ethnoloipj  ore  no  lanjrl,/  iudibted 

tor  the  reeent  addition,  mode  to  the  doto  rrlatlwj  to  Xorth  Amerieo  ; 

"lid  to  whoae  aid  and  ei,voiirn(jemeiit 

is  mainli,  doe  whateirr  xmre.,  the  writer  i„„,,  have  achieved 

ill  hix  xjieciat  line, 

Chi8  worh  t9  respectfully  dedicated 

liV    TIIK    AlTHOK. 


1246 


0 


INTRODUCTION 


Ti)  'I'lii'; 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology 


PHOF.   CYRCS   THOMAS, 

Aiillior  nf  '•  Rcpiirt  nil  Mdiiiil   Expliirrttions  ■•  (Twelfth   Aiiimnl   Uop'irt  of  tlie 

Miiiciiii  of  Aiiu'ricHM   KthiiDlotiy);    "  (HtiiltiKia-  of  Prehistoric  Works  i:iisi  of 

the  liocky  .Moiinliiiiis';  "A  Sliuly  of  the  Miiiiiiveript  Troiuio";  "liiiriiil 

Moiiiids  of   ilie   Northern   Seclioiis  of  the   fiiited   Sliites";   "Aids  lo 

the  Study  of  the   Miiyii  t'oiiiees";    "Notes  on  Certniii  Miiya  Hiiil 

Mexidiiii    Miiiiuseripts";  ■'Hrohlem    of    the    Oliio    Mounds"; 

"Tlie  Cherokut'S   In    I're-Colunibiiin  'rimes";  etc. 


CMN(M\XATr: 
TllK    noHKICr  CI.AUKK   COMPANY 

I  sits. 


Col'VKKill  T.     IS'.O, 
I'lV    'I'lIK    ii'oltKUT    ('l.AKKK    Co.Ml'ANY. 


/ 


PREFACE. 

Tlic  little  volmno  hof(>with  pi'csontcd  to  tlio  public 
is  ii  brief  i-csiim*''  of  the  progi'ess  which  h;is  Ixm'ii 
iiiiule,  up  to  the  pri-seiit  tiini',  in  ili(>  invesiiiraiion 
;iiul  study  of  North  Americiiii  ai'duuHtJogy.  The  iii- 
ci'eased  activity  among  students  ih'votiiifr  attention  to 
the  subject,  the  numerous  explot'ations  made,  the 
i"ipid  accumulation  of  data  and  tlie  flood  of  light 
thrown  on  the  cjuestions  relating  to  pfehistoi-ic  Nofth 
America  since  t)ie  publication  of  the  last  general 
work  relating  thereto,  call  for  a  new  summary. 
Whether  the  work  now  odered  meets  this  d(>mand 
must  be  left  for  the  readers  to  decide.  That  some 
parts  of  the  broad  lield  hav(>  been  left  unnoticed  is 
admitted,  the  attention  being  contined  chiefly  to  the 
more  important  characteristic  features,  as  those  best 
calculated  to  form  an  L\trodu(;tion  to  the  subject  ; 
and  as  best  calculated  to  interest  the  reader  and 
younger  students.  With  such  an  object  in  view, 
pages  broken  or  interrupted  by  foot-notes  are  not 
only  out  of  i)lace,  but  often  serv(>  to  break  the  thread 
the  reader  is  following,  or  prove  an  interruption  to 
his  line  of  thought ;  reference  notes  have  therefore 
been  entire'y  omitted. 

The  opinion  held  by  Maj.  J.   W.    Powell  that  the 

(V) 


VI 


Preface. 


Indians  found  inhabiting  the  Athmtic  division  of 
North  Ainorica  and  tlieir  ancestors  were  tlie  builders 
of  the  mounds  in  tliat  region,  wliich  the  exploratiotis 
of  the  Bureau  (»f  American  Etlinology  under  his 
charge  liav<>  done  niucli  to  confirm,  has  been  adopteil. 
And,  in  general,  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology  in  reference  to  questions  re- 
lating to  language  and  archaeology,  so  far  as  these  ex- 
tend, liave  been  accepted  and  used  as  a  basis  for  further 
steps  in  the  investigation.  But  the  author  alone 
must  be  held  responsible  for  any  views  advanced 
herein  which  have  not  been  generally  accepted,  or  in 
regard  to  which  there  are  different  opinions. 

I  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  here  the  favors  I 
have  received  from  Maj.  J.  W.  Powell,  Director  of 
the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  and  Prof.  W.  J. 
McGee,  Ethnologist  in  Charge,  in  the  use  of  books, 
pamphlets  and  other  literary  aids  needed  in  my  work, 
and  the  privilege  of  obtaining  numerous  electrotypes 
of  the  illustrations  herein  used,  favo/s,  however, 
which  have  always  been  willingly  extended  to  all  co- 
workers. I  also  wish  to  acknowledge  the  favors  re- 
ceived from  Prof.  \V.  H.  Holmes,  in  the  privilege  of 
copying  illustrations  of  and  profuse  borrowing  from 
his  late  work  on  the  cities  of  Mexico,  published  by  the 
Field  Columbian  Museum  ;  also  to  Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge, 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  for  information 
communicated  and  papers  furnished  relating  to  the 


Ptrfiur 


vn 


.  PiK'blo  region.  In  addition  to  the  illustra(ioiis  oh- 
taimnl  from  the  Bureau  publications,  others  liave 
been  copied  from  figures  in  the  V.  S.  (ieological  Sur- 
vey, National  Museum,  etc.  Acknowledgment  to  the 
various  authors  from  whose  works  information  has 
been  drawn  will  i)e  found  in  tlie  text,  the  authors" 
names  from  whose  works  and  pajiers  illustrations 
have  been  ol)tained  either  directly  or  indirectly,  are 
added  after  the  numbers  in  the  list  of  illustrations, 
the  original  being  referred  to  wiiere  it  Is  possible. 
The  numbers  in  the  list  of  illustrations  not  followed 
by  the  author's  name  are  either  orimiial  fi<Tures 
modifications  of  other  figures,  or  theoretical  restora- 
tions by  tlie  present  writer. 


* 

1 


CONTKXTS. 


I'i{i;i,i.Mix.\i!Y  OnsruvATioxH  - 

Tlic  (il)jfct,  .scope  iiiid  plan  uf  tlic  work. 
.M.\ii;iu.\i,s  i-ui{  Stl'dy  a.M)  ('i,.\.ssikic.\ti()N. 
Mktiiods  or  SiiDv 

.VkCTIC    DlVISlo.N  — 

.Monumt'iit.s  an<i  local  anti(]nitic.s  

Iiiiplciiiciits,  (iriiiuiu'iits.  etc   . . 

( 'iiltun'  lidiiR-  of  tlu'  I'lskiino  

All.ANTK'    I  >I  VISION 

MuiuiiiR'nts  ami  local  aiitiqiiitics 

Mounds 

r>iirial  mounds 

W'.sKcls,  impleincnt.s  and  o:  iKiniciit.s.    .. 

Pottery 

Long  necked  bottles 

The  gulf  province 

Pipes 

Articles  of  shell. 

Textile  fabrics 

Copper  articles 

Articles  of  stone 

IncloKures  and  i)yrainidal  mounds 

Prehistoric  movements  of  population... 

Hut-rings  and  house-sites 

Anti(juity  and  authors  of  the  mounds. . 

Duration  of  the  mound-building  age 

Inclosures  and  other  mural  works 


•  M.K 

1 

« 
22 

:]5 

40 

43 

48 

oO 

51 

(il 

7i> 

87 

!t4 

!)7 

98 

103 

108 

109 

113 

117 

121 

132 

1.18 

147 

152 


I,  l.K  ) 


X  Contents. 

PAGE. 

Pac'h  .r  Division ]  fiD 

North  I'lu-iric  si'i-tion— Athapasca;i  ivgioti 170 

North  I'ai'ifu-  coast. . .    17(5 

California  section 187 

Prehistoric  movements  of  population 200 

Intormontane  or  pueblo  section. 203 

Cave-d\vellin}»s 205 

ClifT-dwellings JOS 

Kuins  on  the  plateaus  ami  in  the  valleys 215 

(ii'a  valley  and  Chihuahua 221 

Builders  of  the  cliH'-houses 22!» 

Mexican  section— civilization 23:] 

Monuments  of  southern  .Mexico 252 

Monuments  of  southern  Mexico— continued 264 

Monuments  of  Central  America 27(1 

Chichen-Itza,  Tikal  and  Copan 29(1 

Migrations  of  the  Mexican  and  Central  American  tribes 312 

Migrations  of  certain  Mayan  tribes 328 

Origin  and  development  of  Central  American  civilization. . .  330 

Priests,  hieroglyphs  and  caleiular 35() 

CoNC'LrsioN 3(j8 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


1.  Hone  spoar  head.  I'"„skiiii().     (Dull.) 

2.  Stouc  lamp,  KskiiiH).     ^l)all.) 

;i.  Labret,  Kskiino.     (Dall.) 

4.  Kt'inaiiiH  of  an  ancient  Eskimo  houHe.     (Boas. ) 

o.  riu,  or  woman's  knife,  Kskimo.     (  Mason.) 

().  Soapstone  i)ot,  Kskimo.     (Murdoch,  i 

7.  Hafted  ia<le  adze,  Eskimo,     i  Murdocli.) 

8.  Skin  scraper,  lOskimo.     (Murdoch.) 

!t.  Flint  Haker,  Eskimo.     (Murdoch,  i 

10.  I'lat  of  mound  group,  Wisconsin.     iTIiomaH.' 

1 1.  Terraced  uioun<l,  Arkansas.     (Tliomas.) 

IL*.  Elephant  mound,  Wisconsin.     (Thomas.) 

13.  (iroup  (if  cliaiu  mounds,  Wisconsin.     (Thomas. ) 

14.  Section  of  Mississippi  mound.     (Thomas.) 

15.  Section  of  mound  in  eastern  Tennessee.     (Thomas.) 

HI.  Eartliern  pot,  eastern  Tennessee.     (Tiiotnas. ) 

17.  Shell  ear  ornament  or  hair  pin.  North  Carolina.    (Thomas.) 

IS.  Engravt'd  shell,  North  Carolina.     (Tliomas.) 

19.  Soapstone  pipe,  east  Tennessee.     (Thomas.) 

'20.  Beehive  vaults,  Nortli  Carolina.     (Thomas.) 

21.  Soapstoiu'  j)ipe,  North  Carolina.     (Thomas,  i 

'22.  Stone-grave  cemett'ry,  Illinois.     (Thomas.) 

'_':).  Triangular  pit.  North  Carolina.     (Thomas.) 

L'4.  Position    of    ski'letons    in     an    east    Tennessee     mound 

(Thomas,  i , 

L'.").  Copper  hawk's-bell,  east  Tennessic.     (Thom.is.) 

;!().  Clay  vessel,  Canada.     (Boyle.) 

'xi) 


PAfiE 

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41 
42 
42 

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43 

52 

54 
5(; 

57 

(i7 
.     t)7 

cs 

6.S 
()!t 
70 
72 

80 

85 
8() 
88 


XVI 


L'S. 
■-'1>. 

;u». 


,tt. 
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;.it. 
■to. 

■M. 

■11. 
•ir>. 

■Hi. 

■17. 

■IS. 

-ill. 

50. 
.M. 
."I'J. 

hi. 
55. 
5(). 
57. 
.5S. 
5!t. 
GO. 


/,/.s7  "/"    llhislrdt/diis. 

v\<:i-:. 

Outline  tiiriirt's  III'  Imwls.       llolini'H.) H'.> 

(  MiKiiiu'iitiil  liiiwl,  'rciiiic.'^.sfi'.     ('riiriisti)ii. ) >^lt 

.\<iiiii;il  shapfil  liowl,  Arkansas.     (Ilulincs.) W 

l'.ini-!.liaii"il  howl,  Arkansas,     i  1  loliucs.)    .      'M) 

Pol -si. aped  vcssi'l,  Arkansas.     >  1  loliiifs.) !H 

f'tt-sliapiMl  vessel,  wrst     Tennessee,     (llolnies.) !M 

Wide  iiioiitlutl  h.ittles.     i  1  loh.ies.  i '•- 

uU  ()ii|)()ssmii  va.se,  Arkan.sas.     i  Holmes. > i>- 

^1)1  Suntisli  vase,  .\rkansas.     (llohiies.t f*:i 

l>o\vl  rei)resentini,' the  liiiniaii  head,  Arkansas,     ilhilnies.i.     'X'< 
Winj^'cd  and  cresteil   rattlesnake  design,  Ark.     (Iloimt's.).     '.»l 

<  )iitliMe  !if,Mires  of  lon<;-necked  Ixittles      (llohnes.  > t'l 

iM'ceiurie  shui>es  in  lon^ne<'ked  bottles.     (Uohnes.) 5tl 

Owl-shaped    DoUle,  east  'Tennessee.     I'Tlionias.  I Jt5 

lUiriiil  nrn,  (ieorjjia.     i.hmes. > i>" 

Vessel  with  foiir  le>;s,  (ieoru'ia.     uIoiieK. ) 1*7 

laand  h)  Stendessi)ii)es.     ilioyie.) CS* 

Iinatre  pipe,  (ieor<;ia.     I'Thonias. i "i' 

Image  pipe,  .\rkansiis.     (Thomas. I ll>0 

(a,  b  and  e  i  Shortnecki'd  pipes.     (Thomas,  i UK) 

"  Monitor  "  i)ipo l*^'! 

Kiifrraved  shell,  Arkansas.     ( Thomas. i KM 

Shell  fiDfKet,  Tennessee.     (.lones. ! 10l> 

Shell  gorfjet,  Oeorjiia.     iTliomas.  i lOti 

Kijinred  copper  plate,  (ieor>;ia.     (Thomas,  i Ill 

Figured  copper  plate,  Illinois,     i Thomas,  i ... .      112 

Kigurod  copper  plate,  I IliiioiB.     i'ihomas.i 11'-' 

Stone  image,  Tennessee.     (Thomas. ) 114 

Stone  image,  Tennessee.     (Thomas,  i 114 

I?  Miner  stones H-'' 

Arrow  heads.     (  Mercer.) 11*) 

Moiinil  with  gradetl  way,  (ieorgia.     (Thomas.) 118 

jioubli'  terraced  mound,  Arkansas.     (Thomas.) 110 

Selsertow  n  mound,  Mississippi.     (Thomas,  i I'JO 

Ne. \ ark  works,  Oliif.     (Thomas.) 122 


Li.sl  iif    /  Ihi.'^lrdliont 


Mil 


I'm:K. 

.     K'.» 

.    (to 

<H) 
.  !tl 
.  !M 
.      (»•-' 

.    ;>■-' 
it;{ 

1.    ',»:{ 
).    '.t4 

..      HI 

. .      5(4 

. .     J»") 

. .      t>7 

. .     97 

. .     W 

. .      W 

..    KMI 

..    100 

.  .    101 

..    104 

..    10(> 

..    10(i 

..    Ill 

..    112 

..    111! 

...    114 

...    114 

. ..    115 

...    IK) 

..   lis 

...    110 

.  .  .    I'JO 

...    122 


I'AM.. 

<;i.     "  Hill   Kort,"  Ohio.     (TIk.muih.i Il'O 

O'J.      l.iiiii  workK,  IllinoiK.      ('I'lutiiias. ) JL's 

(>!!.     ".AiiL'i'l  iiiiiundH,"  Irnliim.'i.     iTIiuiiiiis,  ^ , ).'{() 

«il       I  Inimr  site,  ArkaiiK.'iK.     I'l'liomaH.  i j.'ii 

«;.'>.     Sii|i|i()S('<l  iiuiIkkI  (if  lalliiii},' JioiiKi's.     I'l'liDinas.  I l!!.') 

<)li.     Surface  cMij.y,  Sniilli    I'akota.      ('riiouias.  i \\',) 

til.     iJi'iK-  Htoric  war  cliil),   llrilisli   .Niiicrica.     iMorici'.i 17:i 

«1.S.     Stone  war  eliil),  ('olorado.     (  Wickersliam.  i I7:; 

<)!».     .Norlli-weHl coaNl   |)icU>nra|)li.     ( .Nil)la(!k. ) 17K 

70.  CereiiMMiial    drcHS    of     t'liilkat     cliief,    (lerlli-wcst,     eoant. 

( .Nii)lack.  i 17H 

71.  Toti'in  poHlH  of  riortli-wcht coast.     (.\il)lack 170 

72.  liolicK  from  Koiitlierii  ( 'ali''oriiia i,SH 

7;'..  Manner    of    wallin^j    up    liie    front,    of    a    cavc-iiwt'liinjr. 

( I  lolnieK.  I 207 

74      ('iitl'-chvcllinj;  on  the  Kio  AlancoH.     (ilolnicH.)   210 

7h.     liuiiiH  at  .'\/,leo  S|)rin>;H.     (Ilolini'H.  1 21() 

70.     Viliap'  t;roup,  .\ri/onii.     (Mimleied. ) 218 

77.  (iroiiml  i)lan  of  tlie  I'lieblo  IJonito.     iJackKon.) 210 

78.  (ironnd  plan  of  Casas  (Jramies.     ( IJandciier. ) 224 

79.  (Jround  plan  of  a  huildiniL'atCafas  (JraiKii'K.     (Hartlett.j. .  228 

80.  Mayan  day  Hynihols 242 

81.  -Mexican  day  synibolH 242 

82.  Part  of  thi-  inscription  of  the  Tablet  of  the  Cross,  Paien- 

que.      I  Photofjrapli.  i 24ii 

8li.     Pyramid  at  Los  Kdiflcios 254 

84.  Sculptured  cohiinn,  Tula 257 

85.  liuiiis  of  Teotihuacan.     ilIoinieK.  > 200 

8().     (iround  i)lan  of  Teotihuacan  hiiildinjj;.     (Holmes,  i 201 

87.  Kuins  of  the  temple  of  Xochicalco.     (Nadaillac:  "L",\m. 

Prehist.'M 205 

88.  Ruins  at  Mitla.     (  Holmes. ) 200 

89.  Room  with  columns.  Mitla.     (Holmes. i 271 

90.  Fretwork  in  tiie  grand  palace,  .Mitla.     (Holmes,  i 272 

91 .  Painted  designs,  Mitla.     ( Holmes. ) 273 


>;iv  List  of  IlluHtratioiis. 

PAGE. 

<tU.     Plan  of  the  ruins  at  Palenque.     ( Holmes.) -"■'^ 

(»:;.     (iroiiiul  plan  of  the  palace,  Palenque.     (Holmes.) -'7!t 

<t4.     Cross-section  of  i)alace,  Palenque.     (Holmes.) -80 

t>5.     Part  of  Palenque  palace  restored -81 

(hi.     Cironnd  plans  of  Temples  at  1  ..lenque.     i  liolmes.) I'H-J 

97.  Sculptured  lintel.  Lorillard  VMy.     i Photograph.) -'W> 

98.  Plan  of  rnin.s  at  I'xmal.     (Holmes.) "-'W* 

H9.  Ornamentation  on  the  jrovernor's palace,  I'xmal.   (Holmes.)  -MX) 

100.  Section  of  the  ('asa  del  (iobernador.     (Holmes.) '-'(»L' 

101.  Ornamentation  on  the  nun's  palace,  Uxmal.     (Holmes.)..  2!)3 

102.  (iround  plan  of  nunnery,  Chichen-Itza.     (Holmes.) 2!t8 

108.     Klephant  trunk  tijiure,  Yucatan -'**• 

104.  Vertical  section  of   the   Caracol,  or  tower,  Chichen-Itza. 

(Holmes.) -'^ 

105.  (iround  plan  of  the  tower,  Chichen-Itza.     (Holmes.) :«)0 

10(1.     .\tlantean  figure,  Chichen-Itza.     (Holmes.) 301 

107.  (iround  plan  of  ruins,  Copan.     (Maudslay.) 308 

108.  Vertical  section,  main  group,  Copan.     (Maudslay.) 30H 


I'ArjK. 

27S 

27it 

L'8() 

281 

28-J 

28(> 

28it 

2JK) 

292 

203 

2!»8 

299 

299 
;«)0 
301 

;{()8 

309 


INTRODUCTION 


■111     THK 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


CHAPTER  I. 


I'KKMMINAKY    OHSKKV ATIONS. 


ArclKiooloify  in  its  wich'st  sense*  and  by  tlorivatioii 
iiicliidos  the  iiiv('sti<fiiti()ii  of  tlio  orijiiu,  laniruii<f(',  be- 
lit'fs,  customs,  arts — owvy  tiling,  in  a  word,  that  can 
bo  Icariu'd  of  the  ancient  life  of  a  ix'oplc.  It  is  in 
this  scnso  tliat  it  is  used  in  the  title  of  this  work,  and 
not  in  the  more  limited  scope  to  which  its  modern  use 
has  a  tendency  to  restrict  it,  notwithstanding  the  ef- 
forts of  lexicographers  to  regain  its  oi'iginal  meaning. 
The  work  is  intended  r(>al]y  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  ])r(>hist()ric  North  America,  of  the  p(>opl(^  as 
well  as  tlu*  monuments.  To  gather  and  dc^scribe  an- 
tiquities, although  thoroughly  and  intelligently  done, 
is  by  no  means  all  of  archaeology.  Tru(\  th(>se  are 
to  archaeology  what  the  unfashioncnl  and  unadjusted 
nuiterials  of  which  the  liouse  is  to  be  built  are  to  the 
house,  but  th(>y  are  not  the  house.  The  nionunKMits 
are  the  tombs  of  past  ages  ;  the  work  of  archaeology 
<^in  its  broad  sense  is  to  revivify  the  d(^ad,  to  put  life 
\  into  the  i)asl,  and,  so  fai"  as  possii)le,  to  bring  b(>fore 


2  Stiidi/  <if  yvrlli  America II  ArclmcoUxjy . 

'  tlio  iriiiul  tlu"  ancient  people  with  tlioir  activities, 
(•liaract(>ristics  and  customs.  In  other  words,  tlie 
cliiet'  object  ill  view  in  tlie  sttidy  of  arcliaeology  is  the 
man  of  hvixone  a«i(>s.  It  is  witli  this  i(h';i  in  view 
that  this  Introduction  to  tlie  Study  of  Nortli  American 
Archaeoh)gy  has  been  written,  hut  only  as  an  intro- 
(htvtiini,  for  the  field  is  too  broad  to  bo  covered  in  one 
small  volume. 

The  i)roI)lems  which  confront  the  student  of  Ameri- 
can archaeology  ar(>  exceedingly  ditlicult,  and  some  of 
ihem  seemingly  beyond  the  possibility  of  solution  be- 
cause of  the  sheer  break  between  the  historic  and 
prehistoric  (M-as.  Omitting  the  discovery  of  Greenland 
and  possibly  the  north-(>ast  coast  of  the  continent  by 
the  Northm(>n  in  the  tentli  or  elev(>nth  C(Miturv,  whicli 
left  no  impress,  tlH>  history  of  the  western  world  be- 
gins with  the  discovery  of  the  West  Indies  l)y  Colum- 
l)us  in  1492;  all  that  lie  back  of  that  date  l)elong  to 
the  ])r(^hist()i'ic  era,  a  gloom,  so  to  si)eak,  unlight- 
ened  by  a  single  dcciijhei'cd  ])age  of  history.  In  the 
Old  AVoi'ld  thei'e  are  few  i-egions  in  regard  to  whose 
past  there  ai"e  no  recorded  hints  which  can  be  used  as 
/stepping  stones  in  the  backward  march;  in  other 
words,  history  and  ])r('history  are  dovetailed,  so  to 
speak,  one  with  another,  but  not  so  in  the  Ntnv 
World. 

'  Thes(^  difliculties  have  possibly  caused  more  than 
one  student  to  feel  as  Palgrav(>,  who,  in  a})parent  de- 
spair over  the  unsatisfactory  Tesults  of  tlie  efforts,  up 
to  his  day,  to  lift  the  veil  which  shuts  out  tlie  past,  (ex- 
claims :  "We  must  give  it  up,  that  speechl(>ss  past; 
whether  fact  or  chronology,  doctrine  or  mythology; 
whether   in    Europe,    Asia,    Africa    or   America;    at 


J'r(  liiniiiari/  Ohscrrdllinix. 


tit  dc- 
s,  up 
;t,  ex- 
past  ; 
ilogy  ; 
I ;    at 


•p  'Plichcs  (»r  ]*iil('ii(jii(',  on  Lyciaii  ^horc  or  Salisbury 
'  Plains;  lost  is  lost,  jfoni^  is  gone  foi-cvor.''  But  a 
did'crciit  spii'it  animates  the  students  of  the  present 
day,  the  very  ditliculties  in  tlui  way  are  themselves  so 
nuiiiy  incentives  to  attacks.  What  seemed  l)eyoiul 
human  reach  to  the  London  anticpiary  an<l  historian 
sixty  y«\irs  a<^o,  is  deiMued  by  scholars  of  tlu;  closing 
years  of  th(^  nineteenth  centiii-y  to  be,  in  a  largo  de- 
gre(%  attainable.  'Plu*  veil,  which  I'algravc!  looked 
upon  as  lixed  and  immovable,  has  l)een  lifted  at  nu- 
merous jioints  and  rays  of  light  let  in  upon  the  past, 
Sonui  of  the  ])roblems  which  wf>re,  fifty  years  ago, 
yea,  but  tw(Mity-(ive,  deemed  im(:')ssible  of  solution, 
have  been  satisfactoi'ily  solved,  and  luiv(?  now  become 
/  foundation  sto  ■"?,  in  tlie  archaeological  si  -ucture. 

It  is  true,  as  Sii' John  lad)!)o -k  i-enuii'ks:  "in  at- 
tempting to  reconstruct  tho  story  of  tlu*  j)ast,  students 
have  too  often  allowed  imagination  to  usurp  tho  place 
of  research,  and  have;  writ;en  in  the  spirit  of  tho  nov- 
elist rather  than  in  that  of  the  philosopher."  The 
huiulreds  of  diist-covered  works  on  the  sul)ject  of  pre- 
Columbian  i\inei'ica,  and  tlui  oi'igin  of  its  ])eople, 
which  now  lie,  well  nigh  foi'gotten,  on  the  shelves  of 
libraries,  bear  testimony  to  the  truth  of  this  renuirk, 
as  do  also  tho  nuincM'ous  discarded  theories  relating 
thcM'eto.  Nevertheless  theories  will  continue^  to  bo  ad- 
vaiu'cd,  indeed  must  be  if  progi-ess  is  nuuUi  in  the 
study  of  tho  past ,  especially  where  so  many  links  of 
tho  chain  ar(\  still  wanting  as  in  American  airhae- 
ology.  Tlu^  investigaiing  spii-it  of  tli(>  age  will  not 
brook  delay  ;  wherever  theri!  is  an  unbi-oken  held 
some  scientilic  i)low  is  sure  tt)  enter,  though  but  poorly 
eiiui))pe<l   for  the  work.      Ilowevei'.  of  late  years  more 


t  ^\ 


4  Stiiih/ of  Xorth  Amrricnii  Arcliacnlof]!/. 

strict  inetliods  of  approacliiiij^  tlic^  many  jn'ohloins  iii- 
volvod  have  horn  introducrd,  and  now,  instead  of  at- 
toini)tin<;  l)v  imagination  or  thcori/ing  to  ivacli  con- 
clusions at  once,  slow  and  patient  investigation  is  the 
(      process  j)ursued.     The  spade  has  to  a  large  extent  re- 
placed   the   ])en,    and     instead    of    building    tlu^ories 
^'     chiefly  by  imagination,  there  is  a  careful  sifting  of  all 
■*     the  evidence  which  ai)pears   to  have   any  bearing  on 
I      tlui   subj(>ct.      The   fragm(>nts  of    data  ai'e    fitted   to- 
gether and    tentative    theories   deduced   simply  as    a 
j)lan  of    further   progress,   often    however  to   bo  cast 
aside  or   modified,  as   new  material,   which  will  not 
readily  drop  into  i)lacc,  is  discovered. 

As  no  intelligiMit  student  will  continue  his  investi- 
gations of  the  ancient  moiuiments  for  any  consid(>r- 
able  length  of  time  without  forming  theories  in  regard 
to  the  uses,  age  and  authoi's  of  the  works  examined, 
it  is  all  important  to  his  progress  to  know  which  of 
the  questions  that  arise  have  been  compU'tely  or  par- 
tially answered,  and  to  ascertain  which  of  the  numer- 
ous theories  advanced  in  regard  to  the  various  ques- 
tions have  been  definitely  eliminattnl  by  universal 
consent  from  the  class  possessing  elem«Mits  of  possi- 
bility. This  knowledge  will  clear  from  liis  pathway 
much  of  the  nd)i)ish  Avliich  would  otherwise  encumber 
it.  Another  important  point  is  to  know  the  lines 
along  which  the  opposing  views  are  being  pushed  by 
their  respective  advocates.  Although  it  is  undoubtedly 
the  part  of  wisdom  to  hold  in  restraint  the  disposition 
to  theorize,  this  knowledge  directs  the  careful  student's 
attention  to  numerous  i)oints  which  might  otherwise 
be  overlooked  in  his  investigations.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  author  of  this  little  work  has  v(Mitured 


IWlimlnari/  ()hKcrvntionH. 


5 


1 


to  bru>Hy  outliiio  tlio  tlicorics  ivlatinj;  lo  soino  of  the 
more  iinportaiit  problems  which  must  confront  tlie 
HtucUMit  of  Ain(>rk'!ui  urchaeoiogy.  The  chief  object, 
however,  will  bo  to  ])re.seiit  the  data,  and  to  an'an<,'(> 
them  so  as  to  all'ord  the  student  some  means  of  briiw- 
ing  into  liarmony  and  utilizin*;  liis  facts  and  materials. 
But  as  it  is  manifestly  impossibh?  to  present  in  a 
single  small  volume  a  full  acount  of  the  archaeolcxnc 
remains  of  the  continent,  and  discuss  all  th(M|uestions 
which  arise  in  connection  therewith,  only  those  con- 
sidered the  best  rejiresentatives  of  the  leading  tvpes 
and  those  which  best  illustrates  the  art,  customs  and 
culture  status  of  the  former  inhal)itaiUs  will  be  re- 
ferred to. 

The  writer,  as  those  who  peruse  this  work  will  ob- 
serve, has  not  entered  into  a  discussion  of  the  (iU(\stion 
of  the  so-called  paleolithic  ag(\  or  glacial  man  in 
America,  for  the  reason  that  he  does  not  b(>lievo  the 
evidenci^  on  which  the  theory  is  based,  as  yet  suflicient 
to  justify  its  acceptance.  The  results  of  tin;  more  re- 
cent investigations  in  America,  or  at  least  North 
AnuM-ica,  all  tend  in  the  other  direction.  One  by  one 
the  strongholds  of  the  advocates  are  being  over(urned, 
and  the  evidem'e  on  which  the  theory  is  based  dis- 
counted. The  author  fe(>ls  constrained  to  the  belief 
that  p(>oi)led  America  though  old  in  years  bears  no- 
wliero  such  marks  of  anticjuity  as  are  to  bo  found 
in  some  parts  of  the  Eastern  ContincMit.  To  accept  the 
antiquity  which  has  been  assigned  l)y  the  advocates  of 
this  theory  to  the  early  inhabitants  would,  as  the 
wi-iter  thinks,  require  in  order  to  be  consistent  an  en- 
tire recasting  of  all  the  more  stable  theories  which 
have  been  propounded.     "Paleolithic"  as  a  descriptive 


J 


6 


Si  nil  11  of  yoiili  Amrn'rnii  Arcliacdhti, 


term  is  of  minor  iinport.uicc,  hut  as  a  tlioorv  which 
wouUl  cai'iy  l)iuk  the  jn'csciicc  ol'  man  ii.  America  to 
that  immensely  distant  era  which  has  heen  assii^ned 
is  a  vi'rv  ditlerent  tliinij;. 

Mr.  Keary  remarks  in  tlie  f)peiiin<^  i)arai»rai)h  of 
the  second  cliapter  of  his  "Dawn  of  History"  that 
'•HotwecMi  the  earlier  and  later  stonc^  aife,  between 
man  of  the  drift  period  and  man  of  thi^  neolithic  era 
occurs  a  vast  hlaidv  which  wc*  can  not  till  in.  We 
bid  adieu  to  the  ])rimitive  iidiabitants  of  our  earth 
while  they  are  still  the  contemporaries  of  tlui  mam- 
moth and  woollv  rhinocei'os,  or  of  the  cave  lion  and 
the  cave  bear,  ami  while  the  very  surfaces  of  the  earth 
wears  a  diirerent  aspect  from  what  it  now  wears. 
With  a  changed  condition  of  tilings,  with  a  race  of 
animals  which  difFered  not  essentially  fi'om  tho.-^e 
known  to  us,  and  witli  a  settled  conformation  of  lands 
and  is(>as  not  again  to  bo  departed  from,  comes  before 
us  the  second  race  of  man — man  of  the  polished 
stone  age."  It  is  true  that  it  is  claimed  by  some 
European  autliors  tliat  tliis  hiatus  is  not  so  real  as  it 
at  first  appears  to  be,  and  that  it  has  be(>n  partially 
l)ridged  ovi'r  by  some  recent  finds.  But  tlio  effort  to 
bi-idge  the  chasm  shows  too  clearly  to  l)e  misunder- 
stood that  it  is  there,  and  so  long  as  it  nmiains  un- 
closed is  a  Aveak  point,  if  not  fatal  flaw,  in  the  theory. 

We  accept  as  correct  the  idea  advanced  by  Mr,  A. 
H.  Koano  in  his  "Ethnology,"  that  appeal  to  tradi- 
tional movements  and  other  traditional  data  will  have 
no  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
people  of  America  unless  pal(>olithic  man  in  America 
is  abandoned.  So  beli(>ving,  though  we  do  not  j^ro- 
pose  to  discuss  this  question  of  the  original   peopling 


1> 
o 


/'/•(  Vniii nitni  ()h.sn'i'titloii.'<. 


wh'u'h 
icii  to 


I 


x\)h   of 
"   tliiit 

I'tWCCIl 

hie  vrix 
1.      We 
r  earth 
!  niiim- 
oii  and 
(i  earth 
wears, 
race  of 
I    tho^e 
)f  hinds 
t,  before 
)olishe(l 
)y  some 
ea'l  as  it 
artially 
[^Ifort  to 
isunder- 
ains  nn- 
•  theory. 
y^  Mr.  A. 
to  tradi- 
vill  have 
1   of    the 
Anieriea 
not  pi'o- 
p(H)pling 


of  the  eoiitinent.we  |)iit  asi(h'  j^hieial  or  ])ah'(trnhic 
man  of  America  as  yet  watitin<^  in  tlie  creih'iitials 
whicli  entitle  him  to  a  place  in  scientilic  circh's. 

The  liistorv  of  the  Nvestern  continent  is  supposed  to 
b(><fin  with  its  discovery  hy  ('oliind)iis  at  the  close  of 
tlie  fifteenth  centui'v,  all  that  antedat(>  that  event 
ix'ini^  considered  prehistoric.  While  this  is  true  in 
th(!  broad  and  jj;(Mieral  sense  in  which  it  is  used,  yet, 
strictly  speaUinj;,  the  history  of  tlu^  ditlerent  sections 
begins  with  the  first  knowledp'  of  them  obtained  by 
Europeans.  Hence  the  border  line  l)et\veen  the  his- 
toi'ic  and  ])reliistoi'ie  imms  varies  in  date  accordinj^  to 
the  section  referred  to.  The  Ohio  valley,  forexampl(>, 
was  terra  inrofinlta  to  the  civili/ed  world  for  a  century 
after  Cortez  entered  the  capital  of  Anahuac.  That 
which  lies  back  of  this  border  line  belongs  to  the  pre- 
historic era,  and  the  student  who  woidd  jx'netrato  the 
mystery  of  that  ])ast  nuist  e.xamine  and  car(>fully 
study  the  monuments  ;  list(>n  to  the  traditions  which 
have  floated  down  the  ages  ;  jr-ither  th(>  folk-lore  tales  ; 
and  compare  the  customs,  arts,  and  l)eli(>fs  of  th.e 
trib(>s  as  first  seen  and  learned.  He  must  study  the 
native  form  and  lineaments,  and  traci^  by  linguistic 
evidence  the  relationship  of  tribes  and  groups  ;  for  in 
America  there  is  no  scailblding  of  history  to  assist 
him  as  in  the  Old  World.  Tlu^  transition  from  the 
])rehistoric  to  the  historic  was,  from  the  very  natiii'e 
of  the  case,  sudden,  there  being  no  true  proto-historic 
period. 


Sdidy  itf  Xorlh  Aittn'inui  Ai'chuiDloyy. 


CHAPTER  II. 


MATKRIAI.M    KOK    STIM>Y CI.ASSI  I'ICATION  . 

Wlu'n  Coluiiihus  sailed  anuiii^  tli(»  Antilles,  Cortoz 
landed  on  tlio  coast  of  Mexico,  Avhen  .laciiues  ('artier 
sailed  up  tlio  St.  Lawrence  and  Do  Soto  traversed  the 
(iiilf  States,  each  and  all  found  the  regions  they 
visited  inhabited  by  people  of  a  race  different  from 
any  known  to  the  eastern  continent.  The  di.scoveries 
whicli  fo''')wed  l)roii<5]it  to  li^ht  the  fact  that  the  lake 
re<^ion  and  the  Mississippi  vall(>y  Avere  itdiabited  by 
people  of  the  same  rac(>.  Whence  they  came,  and 
how  lon<;  they  liad  inhabited  these  re<^ions — in  other 
words  v.hat  was  their  history — could  not  bo  ascer- 
tained, as  they  possessed  no  historical  records  save  a 
few  syiTibolic  rolls  and  inscriptions  which  are  as  yet 
sealed  books  to  sci(>ntists.  The  dim  and  shadowy 
traditions  which  they  related  to  the  European  dis- 
coverers were  so  confused  and,  in  most  cases,  so 
fabulous  as  to  throw  but  little  lij;ht  on  th(>se  ques- 
tions. And  what  was  found  to  be  true  of  the  regions 
mentioned  was  found  to  be  true  in  a  general  sense  of 
the  entire  continent.  The  most  important  variation 
discovered  was  the  evidence  of  more  advanced  culture 
in  certain  areas,  as  Mexico,  Central  America,  and 
Peru.  The  i)eople,  however,  though  split  into  numer- 
ous stocks  and  tribes,  and  difTering  in  minor  respects, 
b(>longed  apparently  to  the  same  race,  its  members 
being  popularly  known  as  "Indians"  or  "American 
Indians."' 


MaUrvilx  jor  Shall/ — ( 'la/<Kij!<ati</ii, 


9 


In  those  f;icts  wo  have  one  fundainciital  ])oint  with 
wliirh  lU)  corn'c't  conclusion  in  regard  to  tlic  \)vr- 
liistoi'ic  tinu's  of  the  continent  can  he  at  variance. 
Tlio  natives  were  lief(>  and  must  he  recoj^nized  hv 
every  theory,  must  ho  a  factor  in  every  general  con- 
clusion. 

Tlio  chief  fundamental  factor  in  the  study  of  ar- 
chaeoloj^y  is  found  in  the  monuments.  "The  teach- 
in<^s  of  material  I'elics,"  truly  remarks  on(>  author, 
"so  far  as  they  <;o,  are  irrefutahle.  Ileal  in  them- 
selves, they  impart  an  air  of  reality  to  the  study  t)f 
the  past."  These  are  indisputahU^  j>roducts  of  human 
activity,  and  have  imprinti'd  upon  them,  as  it  ■were, 
the  ideas  and  conceptions  of  a  hygone  age.  They  are 
records  in  which  wo  may  read  not  only  the  cultur(>- 
status  of  that  past  ag(>,  but  also  much  in  regard  to 
the  customs  and  beliefs  of  the  p(>ople.  For  th(>se 
reasons  attention  is  directed  to  thvui  as  the  chief 
foiuidation  stones  on  which  our  archaeological  struc- 
ture must  bo  built. 

/  Although  the  monuments  furnish  the  chief  and 
most  r(diablo  data  to  the  archaeologist,  and  throw 
more  light  on  the  customs,  arts  and  beliefs  of  the 
I)eople,  and  reveal  more  in  regard  to  the  life  of  the 
individual  and  family  than  any  other  aids,  they  are 
not  the  only  helps  he  finds  in  his  endeavor  to  pene- 
trate the  unwritten  past.  Language,  which  is  also 
reliable,  enables  him  to  determine  the  affinity  of 
tribes  and  peoples.  By  this  means  he  can  often  say 
with  positive  certainty  that  widely  separated  trib(>s 
or  groiii)s  have,  in  the  past,  sundered  relations  with 
the  great  body  of  their  kindred  and  sought  distant 
homes.     He  has  ascertained  by  this  means  that  the 


10 


Stndi/  of  Xuiili  Anirricait  Arcliacology. 


Apachos  and  Xavajos  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and 
Xortliorn  Mexico  are  t)frslioots  from  tlie  <i;reat  Athapas- 
can family  or  Northern  liriiish  America,  and  tliat  tlie 
.Vrapalios  and  lUackfeet  Indians  of  the  western  plains 
arc  members  of  the  Aly;oii(|uian  stock  Avhich  spread 
over  >.'oi'th  A'lierica  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the 
Ivocky  Mountains,  'i'lins  he  is  enabled  to  trace  with 
more  or  l(>ss  acciiracv  the  lines  of  prehistoric  migra- 
tion, and  outline  tlu>  general  trend  in  ancient  move- 
ments of  popuhitioii. 

Traditions,  although  less  reliable'  than  the  monu- 
;ii(>nts  and  language^  furnish  soine  data  to  the  archae- 
ologist which  frequeiuly  sei've  to  explain  otherwise 
uncertain  evidenc(\  and  lead  to  satisfactory  conclu- 
sions. Folk-lore,  mythology  and  customs  sometinu^s 
indicate  former  contact  or  ndationsliip  not  otherwise 
revealed,  aiid  explain  nuuiy  otluM'wise  puzzling  monu- 
uuMits  and  relics.  Ci-nniology  is  strongly  appealed  to 
*  by  European  ethnologists  as  nn  imi)ortant  factor  in 
tliis  study,  l)ut  the  results  so  far  obtained,  except  in 
cases  of  artificial  pressure,  are  too  unsatisfactory  to 
justify  its  use  except  in  broad  generalizations,  and 
then  only  as  cumuhitive  evidence.  Tliis,  the  writer 
is  well  awar(>,  is  in  conflict  with  the  views  of  a  num- 
ber of  leading  ethnologists  ;  nevertheless  lie  feels  jus- 
tified in  making  this  stat(>ment  deliberately  to  the 
.   vounmu'  students  of  American  archaeolo<>v. 

The  wide  diirerenc(^s  in  many  r(>sp(>cts  between  tlH> 
monunuMital  remains  of  the  Old  AVorld  and  those  of 
the  New,  and  also  between  the  data  relating  thereto, 
call  for  a  widely  tliU'erent  method  of  study.  Even 
th(^  classification  and  nomemdatur(!  of  tlu^  former  are 
not  ada))ted  to  the  latter.      The  ari-angement  into  foui- 


Mittcrialii  for  tShidi/ — ( 'Id.sKijirdtioii . 


11 


classes  or  ages— tlio  I'aleolitliic,  Ncolitliic,  r.ronzc  and 
Iron — is    conccdiHl    lo    ho    jiiai)i)lical)l(>    to    Anicrioa. 
EvidciK'o  of  tlie  two  stone  a<;es  may  possibly  he  found, 
though    still    denied    by    a    numlK>r    of    our    leading 
arcliaeologists,  and  a   copper  ago  ni;iy  be   substituted 
for   the    bronz(>,    ])ut    the    similarity   will    extend    no 
^   further.     The  use  of  iron  as  a  metal  was  unknown  in 
,'  America    previous    to    the    discovery    by    (V)lund)us. 
;■  Copper  Ava.s   used   to   a   limited  extent,  but  it  is  e\- 
\  tremely  doubtful  whetlier  the  method  of  manufactur- 
ing bron/e  liad  been  discovered  at  any  point  on  the 
continent.      Steno  Avas  the  chief  reliance  until  the  in^ 
troduction    of    European    implements.      The    archae- 
ologic  r(Mnains  of  tlie  former,  taken   as  a  whole,  are 
so  widely  dilierent   from   those  of  America,  that  the 
nomenclature  of  the  one,  except  as  applied   to  some 
of  the  ruder  objects,  is  totally  inapplicable  to  thos(> 
of  the  other.     It  has  therefore  been  found  necessarv, 
in  studying  the  archaeology  of  America,  to  jiroceed 
;  upon  an  independent  line  and   to  adopt   an   original 
/  basis  and  a  new  nonuMiclature. 

Although  this  limits  the  range  of  any  classificatorv 
system  which  may  bo  attempted,  it  falls  far  shoi-t  of  do- 
ing away  with  the  difficulties  the  American  archaeolo- 
gist is  coinp(>lled  to  encounter.  Not  only  is  ho  con- 
fronted by  the  fact,  as  apparent  in  the  Old  World  as 
in  the  New,  tliat  archaeology,  even  where  it  has  been 
longest  studied,  1ms  not  reached  that  stage  where  it 
mav  be  termed  a  true  science,  the  general  principles 
of  which  by  modification  may  apply  to  any  .sec- 
tion or  country,  but  also  by  a  multiplicity  of  objects 
so  variant  in  form  and  character,  and  usuallv  in  such 
a  fragmentary  condition  as,  Avithout  a  knowledge  of 


\ 


ii 


12 


Stud  If  of  Xortli  A  nuriani  ArrJuttoUnjij. 


tlicir  uses,  to  batllo  his  alttMnj)ts  at  a  systematic  classi- 
lit-ation.  Nadaillac,  alluding  to  thn  vai'ious  forms  of 
AnuM'icaii  aiiti(iiiiti(>s,  f(Miiarks  that  "theso  facts  -will 
show  how  vcfv  difficult,  not  to  say  impossible,  is  any 
classification,''  a  statement  which  any  one  wlio  at- 
tem])ts  a  systematic  arrangement  will  ])o  disposed  to 
accept  as  true.  AVheii  dealing  with  a  limited  area 
where  the  types  are  som(>what  similar,  classification 
to  tome  exient  is  possible  and  advantag(M)iis,  but  the 
attempt  to  api)ly  it  to  tlie  entire  continent  will  i)rov(> 
abortive.  However,  as  some  grouping  is  necessary  in 
order  to  facilitate  reference  and  comparison,  in  the 
absence  of  «a  scientific  arrang(Mnent  we  must  have  re- 
course to  an  arbitrary  scheme.  As  the  author  has  as 
y(>t  seen  no  l)etter  arrangement  of  i)rimary  groups 
tlian  that  suggested  in  his  '"Report  on  the  Moinid 
Kxplorations  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology," 
published  in  the  Tith  Annual  Report  of  tlie  Bureau, 
it  is  adopted  here. 

By  this  the  objects  are  divided,  in  a  broad  and  com- 
prehensive sense,  into  thr(>e  classes. 

1.  Moiiiimfiifti  (in  thi^  limit(>d  sens(>),  or  local  antiifiii- 
ticii.  This  division  or  class  includes  all  those  anli(|ui- 
lies  that  .ire  fixed  or  stationai-y,  which  necessarily 
jjcrtain  to  a  particular  locality  or  place. 

J,  Rclicn  and  I-iniKu'iix,  or  )iior<d)lr  aidhiiiitlca.  Those 
not  fi.a'd  ttnd  which  have  no  necessary  connection 
with  a  ])articular  localit  v. 

3.  Pidvoijwph'ic  Ohjrctn.  Inscriptions,  picture  writ- 
ings, (>tc.,  wh(>ther  on  fixed  <»r  transportable  objects. 

This  is,  of  cours(>,  an  arbitrary  arrangement,  the 
third  group  l)eing  unnecessary  except  as  a  matter  of 
convenience ;    however  it   appears    to  be    a    practical 


Materiah  fur  Study — ('lasnifiratloii. 


13 


working  system  by  which  the  lines  of  distinction  are 
soniewluit  rigidly  drawn.  Moreover  it  is  adapted  to 
the  two  methods  of  investigation  and  study,  viz.,  in 
the  field  and  in  the  museum,  and  is  in  line  with 
Dr.  Moriz  Hoernes'  suggestion  that,  in  studying 
arcl'  ;M)logicnl  objects,  attention  should  he  given  to 
the  "Typographic  and  Museographic  order." 

The  first  class  does  not  appear  to  be  suscc^ptible  of 
arrangement  into  satisfactory  })rimary  divisions.  The 
only  plan  which  as  yet  seems  possible  is  to  arrange 
them  by  types,  chiefly  according  to  form,  where  the 
obj(>ct  and  use  are  not  apparent,  or  known. 

The  objects  of  the  second  class  may  be  grouped  into 
two  divisions:  1.  Remains,  including  human  and 
animal  remains  ;  2.  Relics,  including  all  other  mova- 
ble antiquities.  Th(>  further  division  of  the  S(>cond 
group  is  largely  typological,  reference  being  made  to 
us(>  so  far  as  this  is  evident. 

Partly  because  of  the  <lifticulties  in  the  way  of  a 
satisfactory  and  us(>fid  classification,  and  partly  be- 
cause the  chief  object  of  archaeologic  investigations 
is  to  learn  what  is  possible  in  r(>gard  to  the  life,  char- 
acter, activities  and  racial  affinity  of  the  formcM*  in- 
habitants of  given  sections,  it  has  been  found  most 
advantageous  to  study  the  monuments  according  to 
the  cidtui'e  areas,  so  far  as  these  can  be  determined 
appro-Kimately  from  the  data  which  hav^e  been  ob- 
tained. 

As  it  is  practically  impossible  «o  make  any  satisfac- 
tory classification  of  the  anticjuities  of  the  whole  con- 
tinent, further  than  into  the  primary  classes  mtMi- 
tioned  above,  the  order  f()llow(>d  herein  will,  as  abov(^ 
intimated,   be  geograi)hical    rather  than    ty[)ological. 


14 


Stmlij  (if  North  Aintrirun  A i'cImcoIoij ij , 


The  divisions  will  be  made  to  correspond,  so  far  as 
the  data  enable  lis  to  judge,  to  the  culture  areas.  But 
the  attempt  to  :iiark  the  culture  areas,  except  as  to 
the  three  primary  divisions  mentioned  below,  can  only 
be  partially  carried  out,  hence  the  sid)divisions  must 
l)e  considered  as  chiefly  geographical  and  intended 
more  as  a  matter  of  convenience  and  comparison  than 
as  archaeological.  Nevertheless  that  there  are  several 
culture  areas,  both  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  divis- 
ions, which  vrill  be  ultimately  determin(>d  and  out- 
HiuhI,  is  undoubtedly  true.  It  is  also  true  that,  even 
with  the  data  which  ha\('  been  obtained,  some  of  these 
areas  are  quite  clearly  indicated,  though  they  can  not 
be  mapped  with  boundary  lines. 

The  tendency  of  the  present  day  is  to  base  the 
efforts  to  arrange  the  native  population  into  ethnic 
groups  on  the  linguistic  evidence  alone,  leaving  out 
of  view  the  important  aid  in  tracing  the  devi^lopmcnt 
of  these  groups  to  be  derived  from  a  i  arefid  study  of 
the  archaeological  data,  or  referring  to  ihem  only 
when  they  c-an  b(>  ust'd  to  confirm  the  theories  based 
on  the  linguistic  evidence.  This  arises  in  part  from 
the  fact  that,  while  the  archaeological  data  relating  to 
a  largi>  portion  of  the  continent  ar(»  few,  and  that 
archaeology  can  not,  as  yet,  be  considered  a  tri'e 
science;  on  the  other  hand  the  linguistic  material, 
although  not  complete^  is  much  moir  abundaitt,  aii<l 
the  treatment  thereof  nnluced  to  tru(>  scientific  meth- 
ods. As  th(>  latter  fi(>ld  afl'ords  greater  promise  of 
reaching  positive  conclusions,  it  is  more  attractive  to 
methodical  students. 

As  the  di  ^'ussion  of  this  suliject  frotn  th(>  linguistic 
standi>oint  is  necessarily  i)ased  upon  the  study  of  the 


Materials  for  Sliuhj — t'lasxiju-ation . 


15 


various  linguistic  stocks  ami  families  of  the  eutin* 
continent,  and.  to  some  extent,  upon  the  migrations 
therein,  so  the  discussion  of  the  same  questions  from 
the  archaeological  stand[)oint  iiuist  be  basetl  upon  the 
study  of  the  vai'ious  tyjx's  and  their  disti'ihution  over 
the  continent.  And  the  same  necessity  for  grouping 
in  some  manner  aris(>s  here  as  in  tlio  linguistic  held. 
Althougli  the  materials  with  Avhicli  the  anii(juai'ian 
has  to  deal  are  not  so  well  lefined  and  distinctly 
classetl  as  those  -with  ■which  the  philologist  is  con- 
cerned, yet  careful  study  and  comparison  will  enable 
him  to  note  the  dilh>renc(>s,  freof;rai:)hical  and  to  somc^ 
extent  ethnical.  The  indications  of  comprehensive 
archaeological  sections  as  nuirked  by  ditl'erences  in 
t>'pe  are  too  a])parent  to  be  denied,  and  then^  are  aho 
indications  of  minor  districts.  The  chief  drawback 
in  attempting  to  use  these  as  evidences  of  ethnic  dis- 
tinctions arises  from  sevei'al  causes — uncertainty  as  to 
what  types  are  wholly  due  to  physical  conditions  and 
what  are  tribal  or  ethnic  ;  also  from  a  lack  of  material 
for  comparison  ;  the  overlai)ping  and  intermingling  of 
types  in  consequence  of  the  shifting  of  position  by 
tril)es  ;  and  lastly  the  fact  that  types  of  art  are  not 
goveriu'd  strictly  by  ethnic  lines.  Nevertheless  race 
ch.iracteristics  and  t  -ihal  customs  iiupn^ss  themselves 
to  a  certain  extent  under  all  variations  in  location  and 
condition,  upon  the  works  and  art  of  i)eople  in  a  sav- 
age or  semi-civiliz(Hl  stat(\  For  instance,  although 
the  Mexicans  and  Mayas  lived  side  l)y  side,  and  used 
tlie  same  calendar  system  and  the  sam?  nu'tliod  of 
enumeration,  yet  W(>  notice  nuirki'd  difl'erences  ])e- 
tween  their  symbolic  writings  and  their  types  of  art. 
W(>  also  notice  in  the  mound    section  the  wide   dilTcr- 


10 


Slitdi/  of  .\iirtli  Aiiirricdii  Airhoeolix/i/. 


enc'(>  bctwcon  the  mound  typ(>s  of  Wisconsin  and  the 
oth(>r  portions  of  the  Mississippi  vallcv.  However,  it 
is  diHicult  witli  tlio  data  so  far  obtained  to  fix  cor- 
rectly tlie  boundaries  of  the  diU'ereiit  culture  districts. 

Although  we  in(>et  with  this  diflicully  in  detining 
geographically  i]\o  boundaricvs  of  the  districts  and 
more  conipreluMisive  s(>ctions,  it  does  not  j)r(>vent  us 
from  drawing  cornn't  conclusions  fi-om  their  geiu>ral 
positions  and  j^eculiar  types.  That  all  the  distin- 
guishing types  of  a  district  or  section  can  not  i)e  at- 
ti'ibuted  to  the  ])eculiar  ])hysical  features  of  such  dis- 
tricts or  s(H'tions  must  he  admitted.  Will  any  one 
claim  that  the  vast  dillerence  between  the  arcbaeologic 
types  of  Mexico  and  Wisconsin  hav(>  residted  vrholly 
from  the  })hysical  dilVerences  of  the  two  areas?  If 
not,  it  follows,  though  physical  envii'onment  is  a  ])o- 
tent  inlluence  in  the  formation  of  ty[)es,  that  so  much 
as  has  not  resulted  fi'om  ])liysical  ])ecidiarities  must 
be  attributed  to  racial  or  trihal  customs.  Yet  the 
])ow(>rful  influence  of  physical  conditions  must  not  be 
overlooketl. 

A  car(>ful  exainination  of  what  has  been  ascertained 
in  regard  to  North  American  archaeology,  with  special 
I'eferenco  to  th(>  (piestion  of  arcbaeologic  sections, 
leads  in  the  first  ))lace  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
ancient  r(>mains  belong  in  a  broad  and  compreh(>nsiv<' 
sens(>  to  two  general  classes.  One  of  these  classes  is 
limited  g(>ographically  to  the  Atlantic  slop(>,  the  other 
i-hiefly  to  the  Pacific  sloi)(>,  the  east(>rn  or  Rocky 
moiuitain  range  of  the  great  c(»ntinental  mountain 
belt  to  the  Kio  (ii-ande  forming  approximately  the 
dividing  line  between  the  two  areas.  Accordinjx  to 
this  division,  the  Atlantic  section  includes  that  part 


Materials  Jm-  Stiidi/ — ( 'lasK/iicah'oa. 


17 


of  tlic  (•(.iiiiiicMt  cast  (.f  the  Ilocky  MuiiiitMiiis  and 
iiorih  of  tli((  (lulf  of  RIcxicn  (  xccpr  tlic  Dcik'  or  tiortli- 
cni  Athapascan  rc-^ion,  and  the  Pacific  section  tlic  rc- 

'"''''i<l<''' f' »  Alaska  to  the   Isthmus  of   Panama,  in- 

cludin*,'  the  Athai)ascan  tc-rritorv.  The  arctic  vv<y\nn, 
or  Eskimo  area,  which  is  not  taken  into  considc-riition 
here,  foi-mini,'  a  sei)arate  division. 

While  tliei-e  are  manifest  and  marked  ddlcronces  in 
the  types  and  characters  (.f  the  ancient  works  and  re- 
mains of  did'i-rent  areas  within  each  of  these  two 
comprehensive  sections,  yet  when  those  of  the  Pacific 
^lope,  as  a  whole,  are  <'ompare(l  with  those  of  tlie 
Atlantic  slope,  there  is  a  dissimilarity  which  marks 
them  as  tli(>  i)roducts  of  diflerent  ethnic  «,n-oups,  or  as 
th(!  result  of  diflerent  influences. 

if  this  division  into  two  great  arehaeologic  sections 
is  based  on  sufficiently  reliai)lo  data,  to  justifv  its 
adoption,  it  will  form  a  V(-ry  important  landmark  in 
the  discussion  of  the  chief  ])roI)lems  of  the  preliistoric 
times  of  our  continent.  Heferenco  to  some  oidy  of 
the  ovid(Mic(>s  l)earin<r  on  this  point  is  made  here  to 
stiow  their  character,  as  it  would  not  he  jmssihle  to 
|>res(. nt  them  in  detail  in  a  short  chapter. 

One  of  tli(>  first  impressions  made  upon  the  mind  of 
the  student  of  North  American  ethnolo<ry  is  the  re- 
send)lance  in  a  ])road  and  <,'eneral  sense  of  the  features, 
customs,  arts,  and  archa(H)l()<rical  remains  of  tlie  west 
<'oast  to  those  of  the  islands  in  and  countries  border- 
inir  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  while  on  the  other  hand 
tluMV  is  no  such  resemblance  between  them  and  those 
<»f  the  Atlantic  slope.  Tn  other  words,  tlie  types 
when  classified   in   ilu.   broa(l(>st' sens<-    appear  to'  ar- 


IS 


Shall/  (ijWurtli  Ann  ricitn  A  i'cIkk  oloi/ij. 


ranijo  llicinsclvcs  in  two  fjonorjil  divisions — tlios«>  bo- 
l(>n_ifin<f  lo  tlic  I'Mcilic,  slope  and  iliosc  coiiliucd  to  the 
Adaiitic  slope.  Altliou^^'li  this  classilicatioii  was  not 
made  in  express  words  until  it  Avas  donc^  l»y  the  aullior 
of  this  work  (see  J\e])ort  on  Mound  Ivxplorations,  in 
the  l"2th  Annual  R(>poi'tof  tlu^  Bureau  of  Anu'rican  Eth- 
nology, ISO'I).  yet  then^  is  r,  very  evident  tendency  in 
the  ■>  orks  relatini'  to  the  w<'st  coast  etlinolo<fv  toward 
such  a  classilication,  and  a  disposition  to  separate  and 
mark  out  what  may  ho  tei-nied  the  Pacific  types.  "If 
nations  of  the  castiM'n  shores  of  the  Atlantic,"  says 
Prof.  Dall,  "wei'e  responsible  |  for  tluMiitroduction  of 
the  above  mentioned  types],  avo  should  expect  the  At- 
lantic sliores  of  America  to  sliow  the  results  of  the  in- 
Ihience  most  clearly.  This  is  not  the  case,  but  the 
very  reverse  of  th(>  case." 

As  indicative  of  this  ditl'erenco  a  few  of  the  types 
may  be  noticed,  as  follows:  The  singular  form  of 
carving,  representing  a  figure  with  the  tongue  hang- 
ing out,  and  usually  communicating  with  a  frog, 
otter,  bird,  snake,  or  Hsh,  obscM'ved  on  the  north-west 
coast  from  Oregon  to  Prince  William  sound  and  also 
in  Mexico  and  Niciiragua.  We  mav  add  tliat  this 
featui'e  is  found  in  numei'ous  instances  in  statues  and 
bas-reliefs  from  Mexico  to  the  Isthmus,  also  in  tlu^ 
codices  of  Mexico  and  Central  Ain(>rica,  but  seldom  if 
ever  ai)pears  in  tln^  anti(]uiti(>s  of  the  Atlantic  division. 

The  prominent  Tlaloc  nose  of  Mexican  and  Central 
American  figures,  of  which  the  sui)posed  elephant 
])robosci8  is  but  one  foi-in  and  th(^  l)ird  l)ill  (thun- 
der bird)  of  the  north-west  coast  another,  both  of 
which  are  but  different  methods  of  i'(>presenting  the 
same    idea,   is    a   characteristic    of    the    Pacific    side. 


Materials  for  Stndij — ( 'htssilicdfion . 


19 


Tlie  iiKMluxl  of  suporiinposiiif,',  in  totoin  jmsts  and 
stiiiucs,  one  figure  upon  aiiotlicr,  usually  coiiiljiiiiu;; 
liuinaii  and  animal,  is  found,  (  xccpt  in  ('alifornia, 
from  Alaslvii  to  tli(>  ist'.imus,  and  is  ;i  true  I'acilic 
t\p(>,  hcinir  almost  unknown  in  tlio  Atlantic  division. 

'l'li(^  anj;ular  designs  on  the  jjottcry  and  haskotry 
are  another  marked  feature  of  the  west  eoast  division. 
And  thus  w(?  might,  if  this  were  tin*  ])roper  i)laeo  to 
enter  into  details,  goon  enumerating  marked  distinc- 
tions between  these  two  primary  ethnological  sections. 
As  evidence  of  tlie  fact  stated,  let  atiy  ono  compare 
the  figures  in  Ensign  Albert  P.  Nil)lack's  excellent 
work  on  "Th(>  ('oast  Intlians  of  Southern  Alaska  and 
Northern  British  (Columbia,"  Avith  the  Me.vican  and 
Central  American  nionum(>nts  and  figures,  and  then 
comparer  them  with  the  types  of  the  Atlantic  slope. 
While  the  first  comparison  shows  such  a  marked  re- 
semblance as  to  l(>ad  to  the  inf(>rence  that  they  were 
derived  fi-om  somc^  common  sourc(>,  or  the  result  of 
some  common  influence,  the  second  comparison  shows 
no  such  similarity.  The  spread  of  types  of  custoni 
and  art  were  governed  in  part  by  several  influences, 
as  ethnic  lin(>s,  migrations,  contact  and  physical  con- 
ditions. Where  we  find  those  of  a  character  which  d(. 
Jiot  depend  upon  physical  conditions,  but  upon  super- 
stitious notions,  following  a  given  line  without  spread- 
ing out  indefinitely,  we  may  assume,  until  satisfactory 
evidence  of  another  cause  is  giv(>n,  that  they  m;<i-k  a 
line  of  migration  and  are  largely  ethnic.  It  is  in 
this  light  we  are  inclined  to  view  the  coast-line  ex- 
tension of  the  types  peculiar  lo  the  Pacific  slope. 

Dr.  Brinton  ("American  Race"),  notwithstanding 
his  view  in   regard  to  the  origin  and  homogeneitv  of 


20 


Stiah/  of  Xdi'IIi  Ainrrlrnn.  Airhnrnloffy. 


t])o  AincricMii  r;ico,  jirrjingcs  liis  liiiiruisiic  i^roups 
i^cogi'apliic'iilly  l)y  tlio  suino  dividing  liiu's  as  th(>s(>  we 
hero  iiidit'iito  as  separating  tin;  ijriinaiy  aivhactdogical 
divisions.  His  "Xoi'tii  Atlantic  Gi'oup,"  omitting  tlic 
Fiskinios,  coi-fcsponds  with  our  Atlantic  division,  and 
his  "Nortii  I'acilic""  and  "Central"  groufjs  combined 
with  our  Pacific  division.  This  arrangem(Mit,  as  h(^ 
atlmits,  is  not  one  of  convonieneo  oidy,  as  lui  attaches 
certain  ethnograpliic  imi)ortan('o  to  it.  "There  is," 
he  continues,  "a distinct  ri's(>ml)lance  i)etween  the  two 
AtLintic  groups,  and  an  ecpially  distinct  contrast  be- 
tween them  and  the  Pacitic  groups,  extending  to  t(Mn- 
peraraent,  culture  and  physical  traits.  Each  of  the 
groups  has  mingled  extensively  within  its  own  limits 
..nd  but  slightly  outside  of  them."  Flsewhere  he 
remarks  that  ''a  few  of  the  easterii  stocks,  the  Atha- 
pascan and  the  Shoshonian,  have  sent  out  colonies 
who  liave  settled  on  the  baidcs  of  the  Pacific;  but  as 
a  rule  the  tribes  of  the  western  coast  are  not  connected 
with  any  east  of  tlu?  mountains.  What  is  more  singu- 
lar, though  they  ditlVr  surprisingly  among  themselves 
in  language,  they  have  marked  anthropological  sim- 
ilarities, physical  and  psychical.  Virchow  has  em- 
phasizcHl  the  fact  that  the  skulls  from  the  northern 
point  of  Vancouver  Island  rev(>al  an  unmistakabh^ 
analojiv  to  those  of  soutluMMi  (California.  .  .  .  There 
are  many  other  i)hysical  similariti(>s  which  mark  th(> 
Pacific  Indians  and  contrast  tluMn  with  those  east  of 
the  mountains."  In  his  "Races  and  Peoples"  this 
division  between  the  eastern  and  western  slopes  is  ex- 
l)ressed  still  more  pointedly  :  "All  the  higher  civiliza- 
tions are  contained  in  the  Pacific  group,  the  Mexican 
really  belonging  to  it  by  derivation  and  original  loca- 


Malrridlx  /or  Sindy — ( 'lanxifivatiint . 


'J  I 


tion.  r>ot\v<'('n  tlio  iiKMiihcrs  of  tlic  P.-icific  and  At- 
lantic groups  thcro  was  vi'iy  ]itil(>  coimiiunication  at 
any  period,  tlio  higli  sierras  walliiij;  tliein  apart."" 

As  tli<i  arctic  section,  especially  those  i)ortions  oc- 
cupi(>(l  l)y  tlu!  Kskiino  stock,  present  marked  ])ecu- 
liaritios,  the  w]iol(>  of  North  America  may  l)e  con- 
sidered in  threcMlivisions  wliicli  may,  for  c«<nvenience, 
lie  termed  : 

I.   The  Arctic  Division. 
11.  Tlio  Atlantic  Division. 

ill.   The  Pacific  Division, 


k^linli/iij    ^\l'|■tll  Annriiuit  ArclntmhHjii . 


CHAPTKR    III. 


MKlMIOliS    ol-    STTDV. 


Altliou^li  the  iiicfliod  of  st ii(lyin<;  A iiHM'iciiM  nrchiio- 
oltiify  liiis  l)('cii  touched  upon  to  souic  extent  in  tlie 
precediu"^  chapters,  it  may  he  well  to  add  soinethintf 
more  on  this  sid)ject  Ix'fore  enlefinij  upon  a  discussion 
of  the  antiipiilies  of  the  divisions  outlined  above. 

Most  of  the  writers  dealinif  <fenerallv  with  tliis  sub- 
ject  be<i;in  their  woi'ks  with  the  primitive,  or  supposed 
primitives  inluibitanis — paleolithic  men,  men  of  the 
mastodon  at^e,  cave  men,  etc.  It  is  pi-obably  the  cor- 
rect and  scientific  method  in  an  extended  treatist!  on 
American  airhaeoloii'v  to  betji?!  wi  'i  the  earliest  traces 
of  man  on  tlie  continent,  thence  followinj^  him  down 
the  ag(^s,  markintf  his  advance  in  culture,  but  it  is 
very  (juestionable  whether  this  is  the  best  method  of 
stU(lvin<i  North  American  archaeoloj^v.  It  is  the  be- 
lief  of  the  author  of  this  work  tliat  the  most  satis- 
factoiy  plan  is  to  beyin  with  tlie  known  and  work 
back  toward  the  unknown  ;  to  l)e<fin  w'th  the  aborii;;- 
ines  and  monuments  and  truce  them  buck  step  by  step 
into  the  past. 

Th(^  evidence  so  far  ascertained  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that,  as  a  general  rule,  tlie  monuments  of  the 
various  sections  are  attributable  as  n  whole,  or  in  part, 
to  the  ancestors  of  the  people  found  inhabitint'  those 
sections  at  the  incominrf  of  th(»  Avhites.  This  has  been 
fomid  true  in  ivi'ard  to  Mexico  and  Central  America, 


}ftlli(>il.i  of   Shnhi. 


23 


and  is  iKiw  ;:,<'ii('f:illy  ;icc'('i)t<'(l  .'is  ti'iic  in  vcn'iii'd  to  ilic 
r<\i;i(»nH  of  tli(^   Mouiid-hiiildci-s  and  ('litl'-dwcllci'^.      It 
is  thcn't'on'advisuhlo  to  procfcd  upon  litis  siippositinii 
ill  rcjjj.'ird  lo  otlicrscctiitiis  until  cvidctici'  iticniiipatililt' 
with  this  cuiu'liisinii  lias  liccii   l)foui;'lit  to  liLrhl-      V\'*- 
histofic  luiiffatioiis,  of  ^vlli(•ll   ff('(iu('tit  mention   will 
1)0  iiiado  hcfciti,  liavo  undoubtedly  taken   ])la('e,  for. 
without  this,  i)()pulatioti  could  not  hav(>  sjjfead  ovei- 
tho  continent,  but  this  was  a  slow  jji-ocess  which   fe- 
<iuirpd    nj^es    fof  its    aceotnplishtnent .      Moreovef.    as 
numbers  inci-eased  atid  ctiltivation  of  the  soil   beifaii, 
tho  tnl)es  necessarily  Ix'caine  more  and  more*  sedentary 
in  luibits.     This  liad   progressed  to  that  extent  wlien 
luiropeans  made    their  app(>aranco  that  luost  of    the 
ijroups  liad  U>n<f  l)een  piM'inatient  resi(h>nts  of  tlie  sec- 
tions theywero  found  iidiabiting;  in  fact,  as  will  here- 
after bo    seen,   there    aro   good  reasons    for  Ixdieving 
that  most   of    tho    larger  stocks  liad   developed    into 
tril)es  substantially  it\  tln^  respoctivo  regions  they  were 
found   occupying.     As    this    devehvpnietit    must  liave 
[•(■(juinHl  a  k)ng  time,  the  i)resuniption  is  justili(>d,  ox- 
<'(>pt   whero   shown   by  tho  (>vidence   furnished  by  the 
monuments    or  language   to    bo  incorrect,   that  th(>se 
remains   ari^  attributable  in  a  getieral  simiso  to  tlie  an- 
vostors   of  tho  inhabitants  of  the  respective  sections. 
That  tliere  was  still  more  or  loss  shifting  of  tribes  and 
to  somo  extent  of  stocks  througli  tho  fortunes  of  war 
and  hero  and  there  tlio  breakitig  away  of  ono  or  mori^ 
tribes  from  tho  parent  hivi',  is  no  doubt  true,  but  that 
there  was  a  greater  degn^e  of  permanency  tlian  has 
generally  boon  supposed,  is  also  true,  a  fact  which  \- 
l)ecoming  mori^  and  more  evident  through  the  investi- 
a'ations   of  late    vears.     Therefore  tlio  natives  as  well 


24 


Stiiilij  lit  .\iu'lli  A  iix  r/r<i  II  A  i'iIkkoIik/i/  . 


;is  tli(>  inomiint'iits  must  he  st iidicd,  iind  \]\v  lanixuajio, 
jthysiral  traits,  customs,  li'aditioiis,  mytli<)l(»<fy  and 
folk-loft^  of  tlio  natives  are  impoi'taut  factors  wliicli 
the  stiid(Mit  must  briiiif  to  liis  aid. 

Another  fact  ■\vliicli  should  b'>  ])oi'ne  in  mind  l)v  tlie 
stiuU'nt  is  tlio  (hmger  of  hasinn-  conchisions  on  ah- 
nornud  objects,  or  on  one  or  two  unusual  tyjx's.  TaUe 
for  I'xamph'  the  su|))>()sed  elephant  mound  of  Wiscon- 
sin "svhicli  has  ])l;;yed  such  an  iinpoi'tant  role  in  most 
of  lh(>  Avoi-ks  velatinu;'  to  tlu^  moiuul-hullders  of  tlie 
Mississip[)i  vallev,  hut  is  now  gencM'ally  conceded  to 
lie  ilit>  eliiii'v  of  a  hear,  the  snout,  llic  elephantine 
fealui'e,  resulting  fi'oni  di'ifting  sand.  Stones  bearinu; 
inscriptions  in  Hebrew  or  other  Old  World  characters 
have  at  last  been  banished  from  the  list  of  prtdiistoric; 
replies.  It  is  wise  therel'oro  to  refrain  from  basini^ 
theori(>s  on  one  or  two  specimcMis  of  an  unusual  or 
abnornud  tyi)e,  iinU'ss  their  claim  to  a  place  among 
L;;enuine  prehistoric  relics  can  be  establisheil  beyond 
dispute. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  many  of  the  important  arti- 
cles foinul  in  the  best  museums  of  our  country  are 
without  a  history  that  Avill  justify  their  acceptance, 
wit]it)ut  doid)t,  as  genuine  anti(ii:iti(>s.  It  is  safe 
therefoi'e  to  base  important  conclusions  only  on  monu- 
ments in  ref(>rence  to  which  tluM'e  is  no  doubt,  and  o\\ 
articles  whose  liistory,  as  regards  the  finding,  is  fully 
known,  except  where  the  type  is  well  establislied  from 
genuine  antiiitiities.  One  of  the, best  recent  works  on 
ancii'nt  America  is  marred  to  some  extent  by  want  of 
this  pi'ecautien.  Mounds  and  ancient  works  are  de- 
scribed and  liirured  which  do  not  and  m^ver  did  exist  ; 


^Fitlnnlx  of  StinJi/. 


and  articles  air  irpresentecl  whicli  art'  inoclorii  pro- 
ductions. 

Tlio  method  of  study  to  be  pursiKul  depends  veiy 
largely  upon  the  extent  to  which  it  is  to  be  carried 
and  tlie  lines  to  be  followed.  For  t\\o  general  reader 
and  the  individual  who  desires  to  obtain  only  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  for  the  student 
who  studies  the  subject  merely  as  a  collateral  branch, 
the  writer  trusts  that  tliis  work  will  suffice.  But  for 
him  who  wishes  to  enter  more  into  details,  it  can  only 
1)6  what  it  ])urports  to  be,  an  introdKct/tm  to  the  study. 
For  the  latter  class,  a  general  knowledge  of  what  has 
l)een  accomplished  is  necessary  in  ord(>r  to  avoid  wast- 
ing time  and  energy  in  going  over  beaten  paths. 

The  student  devoting  attention  tolocal  archaeology, 
that  is,  to  the  monuments  and  remains  of  a  particular 
district,  Avill,  of  course,  ac(puiint  himself  first  with  tlie 
investigations  which  have  been  previously  made  in 
tliat  district.  HowevcM",  this  does  not  end  with  merely 
ascertaining  wliat  monvuuents  hiave  been  discovered 
and  located,  which  of  tluMii  have  been  exph)r(>d  and 
what  relics  and  remains  have  been  obtainiul,  but  in- 
cludes a  careful  study  of  the  types  and  their  relation 
to  the  types  of  the  immediately  surrounding  regions, 
as  archaeology,  as  a  science,  if  it  can  be  so  called,  is 
based  largely  on  analogy,  lu  this  way  he  determines 
what  ar(>  the  i)revailing  types  of  the  district  and  what 
are  ])ecuHar  to  it  if  there  he  any  ;  but  this  investiga- 
tion in  reference  to  a  liniitetl  district  or  to  particular 
classes  of  antitjuities  must  descend  to  mor(>  miniUe 
details  tlian  will  be  nec(>ssarv  in  inakiny;  a  jienei'al 
suivev  of  the  anii(iuities  of  a  more  extended  area. 
It  may,  perhaps,  be  truly  said  that  we  are  just  en- 


26 


Shiih/  iijWoi'tli  Aiinnrdii  A  rcl/omliK/j/. 


tontiEj  upon  tliis  staj^o  of  arcliacoloiiic  ]ir()<;ross,  and 
vet  upon  tli(»  rosult  of  siicli  investigations  nuist  tlc- 
])('n(l  tlu"  answers  to  some  of  the  important  problems 
relating  to  tlie  ])re]iistorie  times  of  the  various  s(>t'tions 
of  our  continent.  Among  the  most  abundant  and 
gcMierally  distribut(>d  cdasses  of  ])ri'lnstorie  artefacts 
are  arrow-  and  spear-points  ;  and  tliougli  the  varieties 
sriMningly  balHe  att(Mni)ts  at  chissification,  it  will 
probably  be  possible  to  determine  all  the  types  of  a 
limited  district  and  thus  obtain  one  means  of  com- 
])arison  Avith  the  archaeology  of  sun'ounding  areas. 
Celts  will  afford  another  m(\'Uis  of  compariso..,  and 
so  on  through  tlie  entire  list  both  of  monuments  and 
relics. 

However,  in  order  to  study  tho  monuments  ])roperly 
and  their  bearing  (»n  the  qu(>stions  relating  to  the  pre- 
historic times  of  the  given  locality,  majiping  is  an  im- 
portant st(>p.  A  local  work(>r  shoidd  have  Ji  map  of 
his  district  witli  tho  localities  of  the  antiquities  marked 
thereon  witli  symbols  indicating  the  types.  Maps 
and  diagrams  of  the  groups  of  works  are  of  course 
n(>cessary  to  intelligiMtt  study.  In  other  words,  the 
g('ogra])hical  relations  of  anci(Mit  works  in  a  district 
as  well  as  tlu*  relations  of  the  individual  works  to 
<'ach  other  in  the  gi-oups  are  iin[)ortant.  Although 
the  moinids  in  the  groups  of  the  mound  area  of  the 
United  Slates  api)ear  to  be  usually  placed  without  re- 
spect to  oi'der  or  plan,  yet  in  the  soiuhern  states  they 
are  so  arranged  in  many  of  the  groui)s  as  to  leave  a 
central,  open  space  or  ))la:'a,  while  ui  Wisconsin  tlie 
arrangement  in  lines  is  an  archaeological  charactei-- 
istic  of  the  region.  The  geogi'a[)hical  distribution  of 
types  forms  the  chief  aid  in  outlining  cidture  ai'cas. 


Mct/iods  (,/  Shiil,/,  27 

Ii  is  important  in  studying  tlio  typos  tif  tho  monu- 
ments uiul  of  tlio  artefacts  to  detorinir-,-  tlio  essontial 
features  of  eacli   type.      It  is  often   true,  espeeiallv  in 
the  case  of  imitative  objects,   tliat  the   type   is  con- 
ventionalized to  such  an  extent  as  to  lose  appan-ntlv 
every  feature  of  the  object  of  Avhich  it  was  intended 
to  be   a  representative  ;   yet  the  careful  student,   bv 
tracing  the  variations  and  eliminations,  will  iisuallv 
1)0  able  to  determine  the  ess(MUial  features  and  reach 
a  correct  conclusion.      Without  this  study  unessential 
characteristics  may  be  given   an  inulue  ])rominence. 
There  appears  to  have  b(M>n  a  strong  dc\sire  on  the  part 
<»f    the   aboriginal   artists   to   ini reduce    the    eve    and 
other  face  f(>atiires  into  the  Central  Amei-ican  hiero- 
glyphics, yet  in  many  of  tliese  they  are  non-essentials, 
being  simply  ornamental  ;  and  tlie  same  thing  is  true 
in   r(>gard   to   many  other  antiquities.      Xev(>rtheless, 
these  iiness(>ntial  features  as  to  the  type  are  important 
in  comparisons,  as  they  assist  in  ascertaining  affinities 
and  d(>rivation  where   the  typ(>  is  widely  distributed. 
The  olla  or  globular  bowl  has  l)een  and  is  yet  a  com- 
mon typo  of  lottery  vessel  among  the  Pueblo   Indians 
of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  yet  tlu^   Indians  can.  in 
most  cases,  readily  decide  from  what   Pueblo  a  par- 
ticular vess(d  came   by   the   oriuimentation    or   other 
features  un(>ssential  to  the  type. 

The  student  investigating  the  archaeology  of  a  given 
district  should,  as  above  indicated,  make  himself  ac- 
quainted, so  far  as  the  data  will  permit,  with  the  his- 
tory, customs,  beliefs,  traditions,  etc.,  of  th(>  tribes 
Avhich  have  iidiabited  that  district.  Of  cotu-se  it  does 
not  necessarily  follow  because  it  is  known  that  the 
ancestors  t)f  the  p(>ople  foinid  iidiabiting  a  certain  ex- 


•28 


Stiidij  (if  \oiih  AiinrifOii  A I'cluu  Jogy. 


tensive  section,  as  Central  America.  Mexico,  rhe 
Piiehlo  region  or  the  mound  area,  were  the  autliors  of 
a  hirge  portion  of  tlie  nu)niinie!its  of  tliat  section,  tliat 
th(>  ancestors  of  tlie  ])eo])le  found  in  niort'  restricted 
localities  were  the  autho  "s  of  the  nionmnents  of  tliose 
particular  localiti(>s.  There  are  utKiuestionably  some 
moniinients  in  southern  Arizona  and  northern  Mex- 
ico which  can  not  ho  attributed  to  the  ancestors  of  the 
ti'il)(>s  inhabiting  or  known  to  hav(>  inhabited  the  par- ' 
ticular  localities  whei'c  these  ruins  are  found.  The 
same  thing  is  true  also  of  ciM'tain  ancient  works  in 
the  rnound  sin-tion  of  tli(>  rnit(>d  States.  Although 
tlu>  works  as  a  Avhole  an;  attributable  to  the  ancestors 
(if  the  Indians  of  the  section,  some  ti'ibes  who  wei'e 
mound  buikh'rs  may  liav<^  become  extinct  through 
wars  or  epidemics,  others  may  nav(>  IxH'n  forced  to 
sliift  i)osition,  and  still  other  tribes  may  never  have 
adopted  the  custom  of  building  mounds,  yet  the  ])ropo- 
sition  in  its  general  application  iv mains  true.  One 
ol)ject,  therefore,  of  the  local  worker  sliould  lt(!  to  de- 
termine, if  })ossible,  what  tril)es  or  p(>ople  were  the 
authors  of  tln^  works  of  the  district  lie  is  studying, 
whether  those  known  to  liave  inhal)ited  the  district, 
or  others  removed  in  prehistoric  times.  The  first 
step  in  this  investigaticMi  is  to  learn  the  customs,  arts, 
etc.,  of  the  people  who  formerly  inhabited  that  dis- 
trict, as  Im  niay  thus  be  enal)lcd  to  determine  t\u) 
pr()l)abilitv  that  thev  were  the  autlioi's,  or  to  elimin  ite 
them  from  the  investigation.  The  a  priori,  presumj)- 
tion  is  that  the  local  natives  were  the  builders.  Every 
elimination  of  a  factor  from  the  discussion  of  a  prob- 
lem is  one  step  toward  the  true  solution. 

\n  the  study  <tf  tyjx's  the  method  must,  of  m^cessity, 


Methods  of  Stialy. 


29 


be  very  largely  geographical  with  rofeivnce  to  vari- 
eties, if  the  object  in  view  be  to  ascertain  the  distri- 
bution of  the  dir'erent  varieties.  If  the  object  be 
simply  to  trace  the  development  of  the  type,  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  is  of  less  importance.  Mr.  A. 
E.  Douglass,  of  New  York,  who  has  a,  large  private 
collection,  suggests  r.i  regard  to  museum  collections  a 
double  arrang(>ment  for  these  purposes :  First,  an 
arrangement  of  specimens  according  to  geographical 
distribution  ;  and  second  by  varieties.  As  the  study 
of  types  necessitates  the  examination  of  specimens, 
this  i)lan,  where  practical,  would  undoubtedly  be  ad- 
vantageous. One  difficidty  in  these  lines,  which  has 
not  y(>t  been  overcome,  is  the  want  of  a  uniform  and 
acceptal)le  nomenclature" ;  but  nomenclature  seems 
impossil)l(>  without  classification,  which  has  not  been 
accomplished  except  in  n^gard  to  limited  districts. 
This  is  a  d(>sideratum  to  which  the  attention  of  cura- 
tors of  museums  is  now  hoing  directed,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped,  notwithstanding  the  difficulties  in  the  way. 
that  they  will  find  some  means  of  classifvin<'  collec- 
tions  sufficiently  to  form  a  basis  for  names  of  tvpes. 

In  studying  the  monuments  it  will  bo  found,  as  yet, 
advantageous  to  limit  attempts  at  grouping  or  chissi- 
ficatory  arrangements  to  districts  or  sections.  Co?n- 
I)arison  can  then  be  made  with  the  works  of  other 
sections  or  districts,  group  with  group,  or  class  with 
class.  By  this  type  generalization  or  aggregation  th(> 
contrasts  or  similarities  are  not  only  more  appanMU 
than  by  single  comparisons,  but  are  of  much  more  im- 
portance. By  such  comparison  of  the  works  of  the 
mound-builders  with  those  of  the  Pueblo  region  or 
('entral  America,  the  contrast  is,  so  to  speak,  intensi- 


J 


30 


Study  nf  North.  A.^iericait  Archacolnjij/. 


Hod.  Within  tlie  section  or  district  some  grouping, 
even  though  it  bo  arbitrary,  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
progress,  and  withou*^  it  discussion  is  impossible  and 
giMioral  description  of  little  value.  Tn  other  words, 
tlie  student  can  make  but  little  progress  in  archaeology 
imtil  he  advances  to  what  may  be  termed  the  generic 
stage.  Mr.  Holmes  has  adopted  a  most  excelhnit 
method,  both  in  his  studies  of  the  monuments  and  of 
tlie  minor  vestiges  of  art.  Ho  learns  by  a  comparison 
of  sj)ecimens  or  of  individual  monuments  the  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  the  difr(>rent  types  under  inves- 
tigation ;  tlion  by  moans  of  outl'ne  figures  or  sketches 
brings  the  typos  pertaining  to  the  same  general  class 
in  their  simplest  form  into  comparison.  See,  for  ex- 
ample, his  comparison  of  types  of  pottery  vessels  of  a 
certain  class  shown  in  our  Fig.  37,  and  his  comparison 
of  temple  ])lans  in  our  Fig.  9(>.  Although  the  idea  is 
not  new,  his  ap[)li('ation  of  it  to  the  aiiti(iui*i(>s  of 
North  Ainerica  which  he  has  (wamined  is  clear,  and 
serves  to  illustrate  a  ])lan  which  may  well  be  fol- 
lowed . 

Study  may  b(>  in  the  field,  in  the  museum  or  in  the 
books.  In  -lie  first  case  tliere  are  numerous  practical 
(piestions  which  can  b(^  answennl  only  by  exp(>rience  ; 
the  student  must  therefore  learn  by  practice  or  by  ref- 
erence to  the  expericMiced  field  worker.  The  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology  receives  many  letters  inquiring 
as  to  th(^  best  method  of  exploring  (opening)  and  in- 
vestigating mounds,  etc.  Although  the  general  direc- 
tion, to  not(>  ev(M'y  thing  so  carefully  as  the  exploration 
proceeds  that  a  complete  restoration  in  every  particu- 
lar could  b(^  made  from   these   notes,  would   perhaps 


McIIkhIs  (if  Stud  I/. 


31 


answer   the   imjiiirv,    tli(>    followin,<^   .suiff^iostions    arc 
added  for  tlio  Ix-iiclit  of  (li(>  youDf^  hcifiunor  : 

If  tlic  mound  to  ho  cxploi-fd  \)o  one  of  a  j^roup,  tin* 
first  step  is  to  make  a  full  and  coniplcto  dt'scription  of 
tlio  j^roup,  with  dia<fi'ain  as  luM-ctofon;  suggostod, 
noting  carefully  the  topography  of  tlio  area  covered 
by  the  group,  and  of  the  immediately  surrounding 
country.  The  plan  should  show  tlie  correct  positions 
of  the  mounds,  and  their  form  and  size  (diameter  and 
heiglit)  should  he  noted.  In  addition  to  the  measure- 
ment of  the  mound  to  he  Explored,  a  liorizontal  sec- 
tion sliowing  an  outline  of  th(>  base  as  seen  from  the 
summit,  and  a  vertical  section  showing  thi^  contour  of 
the  longest  diameter,  should  \n)  drawn  on  paper,  and 
of  suflicient  size  to  note  spaces  tliereon,  of  a  foot 
measured  on  tlu'  ground.  The  north  and  south  jxnnts 
should  1)0  indicated  on  the  horizontal  section.  These 
plans  are  for  the  ])urposo  of  inscM-ting  marks  indicat- 
ing tlio  i)ositions,  horizontally  and  vertically,  of  the 
articles  found  as  the  exi)loration  proceeds.  These, 
with  the  notes  naming  th(>  articles  by  corr(\sponding 
numbers  and  giving  the  measurement  as  to  depth  and 
side,  will  be  suflicient  to  locate  th(>  article  in  the 
mound,  should  \'  ^  exact  position  (>ver  become  a  ques- 
tion of  any  importance.  Such  a  (piestion  occasionally 
becomes  impt)rtant  when  tlu^  ai'iicle  is  found  to  indi- 
cate contact  with  l']uro|)eans,  or  is  abnormal. 

In  order  to  note  the  stratification  it  is  best  to  diii  a 
trench  from  side  to  side  through  th(\  highest  point,  or 
center,  and  where  the  mound  is  of  considerable  size  it 
will  be  well  to  run  another  at  right  angles  to  this. 
These  should  commence  and  end  at  the  extreme  outer 
nuii'gins  of   the  mound  and    be  carried  down  to  the 


J 


:}2 


Sfiidji  of  Xortli  American  Archdcolofii/. 


natural  soil  or  subsoil  as  the  case  in;iy  ])<>.  Wlioii  a 
skoli'ton  or  relic  is  found  it  shoukl  not  be  removed 
until  it  is  well  exposed  and  its  c'haract(>r  and  position 
noted  down.  If  a  vault,  tomb,  wall  or  anv  tiling  of 
large  si/o  is  encoiuUered,  the  treneh  should  be  carried 
aroinul  this  U!UiI  it  is  fully  exposed  before  b(>in<^  dis- 
turbed. When  the  trenches  are  completed,  the  re- 
nuiining  portions  of  the  mound  can  bo  removed,  the 
same  care  being  taken.  Where  the  mound  is  of  large 
size,  sinking  shafts  and  tunneling  may  Itave  to  be  re- 
sorted to.  Care  must  bo  taken  to  mark  all  articles 
found,  with  numbers  corresponding  witli  those  in  the 
notes  and  on  the  sections.  Of  course  the  character 
and  thickness  of  the  strata  and  every  other  particular 
deemed  worthy  of  remembrance  should  be  noted 
down.  Photography  will  of  course  bo  advantageous 
where  clear  and  distinct  jjictureg  can  be  obtained,  but 
will  not  supply  tlio  place  of  sketches.  As  it  woidd  re- 
(juire  too  much  space  to  notice  all  the  variations  from 
these  suggestions  and  add  additional  on<\s  lux-essary  to 
meet  the  num(M'ous  peculiarities  the  explorer  may  en- 
counter, we  can  only  repeat  what  is  stated  above  : 
Note  every  particular  with  such  care  that  it  will  be 
possible  from  the  description  to  completely  restore  the 
mound  in  every  particular. 

As  the  author  is  familiar  by  personal  investigation 
with  the  antiquities  of  the  mound  region  alone,  his 
suggestions  in  r(>gard  to  those  of  otlier  sections  must 
be  drawn  from  the  works  of  oth(>r  explorers.  Profit- 
able suggestions  in  reference  to  the  method  of  study- 
ing tlie  ruins  of  Central  America  and  Mexico  may  be 
drawn  from  Mr.  Holmes'  account  of  the  celebrated 
Palenque  group  given  in  his  "Archaeological  Studies 


Milhoils   lit'  Shiih 


among  the  Ancient  Citi.'s  of  Mcxic,.."  II,.  >i;,rts  oni 
by  giving  a  skcich mnp  of  tli,>  jocaliiy.  Thm  follow 
in  order  ;i  "i'anoi'ainic  \'ic\v"  of  th,.  group;  the 
"Orientation  and  Ass(Mnl)lage."  Avhich  resuli>  insliow- 
ing  tliat  tl)e  placement  of  llie  l)uil(iings  would  seem 
to  be  due  to  tli(>  natural  features  of  the  gi-ound  ratlier 
tlian  to  a  regai-d  for  the  points  of  the  compass  ;  "Ma- 
terials and  Masonry";  "Constriiclion"  ;  "Substruc- 
tures," or  pyramidal  basements;  "Superstructures," 
or  buildings  ;  under  the  latter  ho  outlines  the  ground 
plans  of  the  types,  following  witli  the  protius  of  con- 
struction or  elevation  accompanied  by  outlines  of  ver- 
tical sections,  illustrating  the  mode  of  construction. 
This  is  followed  with  descriptions  of  the  roonn<',  of 
the  types  of  doorways,  of  pillars,  stairways  and  oHier 
essential  features  of  the  buildings,  the  ornamentation 
Ix'ing  considered  last. 

In  his  description  of  Monte  Alban  and  Mitla,  in 
addition  to  the  description  of  the  ruins  and  mode  of 
construction,  he  go(>s  back  to  the  quarry  in  order  to 
study  the  method  of  preparing  the  material  from  the 
initial  stroke  until  the  blocks  of  stone  are  readv  for 
removal  to  the  building  site,  and  to  l(>arn  what  man- 
nov  of  tools  were  employed  and  how  used.  This 
might  be  followed  up  from  the  work  of  others,  as 
that  of  explorers  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Eth- 
nology and  of  the  Ilemenway  Expedition  among  the 
ruins  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  but  what  has  been 
mentioned  will  sufhce  to  indicate  the  method  these 
field  workers  have  followed.  It  is  something  of  an 
art  to  grasp  readily  the  chief  idea  or  phui  of  a  group 
of  ruins.  When  this  is  caught,  the  lines  and  parts 
3 


34 


Stiidi/  (if  .\(>rth   A  iiicrifdii   A  rrhih  u(i,iiji . 


are  usually  easily  traced,  tlu)U_nli   hidden    from  view 
until  uncovered. 

The  study  in  the  museum,  that  is  of  articles  in  col- 
lections, has  been  alluded  to  iiu'identally.  The  study 
of  the  literaturt",  wh('r(>  not  in  aid  of  the  study  of  the 
monuments  and  remains,  is  chielly  for  the  i)urpose  of 
investigating^  certain  prithlems.  In  this  case  the  scope 
(if  in<|uiry  is  widened  and  th«»  data  furnished  by  the 
monuments  and  remains  constitute  but  one  of  the 
factors  ;  langua<i;«\  i)hysical  traits,  customs,  traditions, 
mythology  and  folk-lore  must  all  bo  brought  into  the 
investigation.  This  involves  also  an  examination  of 
the  early  histories,  the  accounts  of  navigators  and  ex- 
plorers and  of  more  recent  discussions  on  the  same 
topics.  The  student  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
archaeology  is  based  on  particulars,  on  innumerable 
fragm(>nts,  and  that  conclusions  and  theori(>s  to  be 
correct,  must,  so  to  speak,  be  the  figur(>s  formed  when 
thi^  fragm(>nts  are  rightly  i)laced.  This  brief  and  far 
from  complete  outline  of  the  method  of  study  will, 
with  the  })resent  work,  furnish  some  aid  to  tho  student 
who  wishes  to  devote  attention  to  North  Amei-ican 
archa(>ology,  but  the  critical  inv(>stigator  is  expected 
to  open  up  new  lines  and  bi'ing  to  bear  ni'W  argu- 
ments on  the  (juestitdis  which  arise. 


l 


.1  ri'tif  hirixlttn. 


35 


CHAPTKR    IV 


AKCTIC      DrVIMION. 

As  the  arcliaoologicjil  data  of  tliis  division  ai-o  few. 
and    tlicir   diivct   connection    with    tlic^    Eskimo    and 
allied  tribes  is  not  qu(>stioned,  the  division  is  j)iirely 
an  ethnolojrical  one.      ITowever  as  the  \)vo\)]o,  at    their 
entrance  into  the  domain  of  history  W(>re  in  the  stone 
aije,  the  implements,  utensils  and  other  artefacts  in 
use  among  them  adord  a  means  of  cotnparison  which 
can  not  wisely  Ix;  overlooked  (>v(>n  in  this  brief  sur- 
vey.    Moreover  this  area  furnishes  the  best  field  on 
the  continent  for  the  study  of  the  culture  of  a  i)rimi- 
tive  people   as   indicated    by   their  arts.     Stom>    and 
hone  implem(>nts   found  in   the   rrraves,   mounds  and 
refuse  h(>aps  of  other  st-ctions  an^  often  s(M-ious  ])u/zles 
to   the  archaeolorrist,  because    tlicir  us(>   was  discon- 
tinued before  the  historical  era  and  is  not  easily  de- 
t?rmined.      Rut  in  the  Eskimo  area  f(>w  have  bc-en  dis- 
covered of  which  the  use  is   unknown,  almost  ev(M'y 
form   havin<>;  l)een  continued  in   use  until  visited  bv 
European  navi.i,nitors.     The  knowled.s^n^  thus  obtained 
furnishes    a    k(>y   by  which    many    an    archaeological 
riddle  may  be  solved. 

Moniimriifs  or  Loral  AniiqniticH. — These  consist  al- 
most wholly  of  shell  or  refuse  heaps,  the  remains  of 
old  iglus  or  Eskimo  houses  which  wer(>  constructed 
in  part  of  stone,  and  an  occasional  pile  of  stones 
heaped  over  a  grave   to   protect   it   from  wild  beasts. 


IStiidi/  (if  Xinili  Amcrlrfiii  Airliarolom/. 


No  true  iiumnds,  iiu'losiiiTs  or  fortitications  of  ;i  pcr- 
iiiiUUMit  c'Iiar;i('t('i-,  liuvo  Ix-cii  discovcrctl  in  t\\v  entire 
area.  This  sratciiKMit  will  also  pi-ohahly  apply  to  a 
considcrahlc  extent  of  countiy  lyinj^  south  of  the 
nui'thei'n  Mskiino  belt,  as  we  are  informed  by  Kev.  A. 
(i.  Moi'ice,  ^\•ho  has  resided  for  many  years  nmon<,' 
the  north-western  Athapascans  (or  Dene),  that 
"  throu<^hoiit  the  whole  extent  of  their  terri..  y,  no 
mounds,  inelosur(>s,  fortilications  of  a  permanent 
character,  or  any  earthen-works  su<^g(^stin<^  human 
agency  are  to  be  found." 

Numerous  shell-heaps  have  been  discovered  in  the 
Aleutian  Islands.  Sitch  of  these  as  have  been  exca- 
vated ar(>  found  to  consist  of  two  or  thr(>e  distinct 
strata,  indicating,  it  is  si;))posed,  successive  periods  of 
occupancy.  Prof.  W.  II.  Dall  ilescribes  the  typical 
form  as  consisting  of  the  folhnving  laycM-s  :  First,  or 
lowest  stratum,  composed  almost  e.\<lusiv(dy  of  the 
broken  tests  or  spines  of  Kclilims,  a  few  shells  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  edible  mollusks  being  intcM'mixed  ; 
the  next  layer  above,  composeil  chiefly  of  fish  bones 
and  shells,  with  an  occasional  bird  l)one  ;  above  tliis 
was  a  layer  characteriz(>d  by  numerous  mammalian 
bones,  of  marine  species,  intermixed  with  bones  of 
sea  birds  ;  this  was  covered  by  modern  deposits  and 
vegetal)l(>  mold. 

The  following  articles  found  in  tliis  refuse  heap  fur- 
nish some  indications,  Prof.  Dall  thinks,  of  the  ad- 
vance in  culture  during  the  time  it  was  being  formed, 
though  this  has  been  questioned.  In  the  lower  stratum 
a  small  hammer  stone  was  discovered  whicli  had  an 
indentation  on  each  side  for  the  finger  and  thumb, 
and   bruises   on   the  ends,  indicative  of  use,  proi)abh' 


.1  rrht'  Ih  n.stoii . 


•M 


foi'  hn^iikiiig  Kcliimis  tests.  In  tlic  sin'ond  wcrc^  rndv 
iii'l-siiikcrs,  stoiic  knives,  aiid  spear-lieads  h(»lh  of 
stone  and    Ixtne.  ilie   latter  distinct  Iv  l)arl)ed  (  Fi<j;.  1). 


V'n:.  \.     Iloiic  ^[ii;ir  hc.i.l,  I'iskliiio. 

Those  tippeai'ecl  in  s'  II  <j;i"e;iter  ai)iindanee  and  vai'ied 
forms  in  the  in!iininali{in  stiMtuin,  fi-oni  wliieh  wefe 
idso  ol)taine(l  stone,  hone,  and  lioni  skin-dfessers,  hone 
jiwls,  stono  adzes  tmd  hiinjjs ;  also  carved  ai'tich's, 
such  as  masks,  and  a  single  fiico-forin  carved  on  hone. 
One  of  the  lamps  is  shown  in  Fi<;.  2.      Bone  .'uul  stone 


ilv 


¥\ff.  'J.    Stone  lamp,  Eskimo. 

hihrets  were  found  in  ihe  upper  layer  of  one  of  these 
shell-heaps  and  also  in  a  cave  deposit  of  corresponding 
age.  One  of  the  hd)rets  is  sliown  in  Fig.  3,  Prof. 
Dall,  to  wlu)m  we  are  indehted  for  the  foregoing  de- 
scription of  Aleutiiui  shcdl  heaps,  discovered  also  in 
the  same  r(\gioii  the  marks  and  renuiins  of  ancient 
villages.      Tlie  method  of  huilding  among  the  ancient 


38 


'jiudi/  (if  \\))'tli.  Anicrican  Airluieology . 


Fig.  I!.     Labret,  Eskimo. 


inluibitants,  who  are  pre.siinied  to  liave  been  Aleuts, 
was  to  excjivate  slightly,  build  a   wall  of  Hat  stones 

or  of  the  bones  of 
tlu>  larger  whales, 
and  bank  this  on 
the  outside  with 
turf  and  stones. 
The  roof  appears 
to  have  been  form- 
e  d  u  s  u  a  1 1  y  o  f 
whales'  ribs,  cov- 
ered with  wisps  of 
grass  tied  together 
and  laid  on  the  rafters,  then  turfed  over. 

The  remains  of  ancient  stotie  houses  are  found  scat- 
tered over  the  greater  pai-t  of  Arctic  America,  espe- 
cially the  eastern  portion,  even  in  sections  no  longer 
inhabited  by  Eskimo,  as  the  Parry  Archipelago  and 
the  northern  part  of  East  Greenland.  These  are  ap- 
propriated by  the  Eskimo  of  tlie  present  day  for  tem- 
porary dwellings  when  they  Stop  in  the  region  where 
they  are  fouml.  A  figure  of  the  remaining  founda- 
tion of  one  of  these  ancient  structures  is  given  in 
I'ig.  4,  from  Kumlien.  The  purpose  of  the  long 
kayak-like  building  figured  in  connection  with  the 
stone  house  is  not  known.  Dr.  Boas  says  he  found  a 
similar  one  twenty  fi'et  long,  scarcely  one  foot  high, 
consisting  of  two  rows  of  stones,  at  Pangnirtung,  Cum- 
berland Sound,  l)ut  nobody  could  ex[)lain  its  use. 

The  remains  of  a  number  of  these  ancient  stone 
houses,  or  iglus,  have  been  found  in  the  American 
Archipelago  and  about  Cumberland  Sound.  Those  in 
good  condition  have  a  long  stone  entrance,  sometimes 


.[rct/c  DiriKlon. 


39 


10 

in 


from  liftccii  to  IwcMily  fi'(>t  long.  This  is  made  by 
cutting  an  excavation  into  tlio  slope  of  a  hill.  Its 
walls  arc  covered  with  large  slabs  of  stone,  about  two 


Fig.  4.     Kemcins  of  an  ancient  Eskimo  house. 

and  a  half  f(H>t  high  and  thn^e  feet  wide,  the  space 
between  the  stone  aiul  tlie  sich^s  of  the  e.vcavation 
being  afterward  filled  with  the  earth.  The  floor  of 
the  passage  slopes  upward  toward  the  hut.  The  last 
four  feet  of  the  entrance  are  covered  with  a  very  large 
shib,  and  are  a  little  liigherthan  the  other  parts  of  the 
roof  of  the  passageway.  The  slab  is  at  the  same 
heiglit  as  tlie  benches  of  the  dwelling  room,  which  is 
also  dug  out,  the  walls  being  formed  of  stones  or 
whale  ribs.  These  houses  are  supposed  to  have  been 
covered  in  the  same  way  as  those  already  descril)ed. 

Dr.  Boas  states  that  he  has  found  at  Ukiadliving, 
among  other  remains,  some  very  remarkable  "store- 
houses." "These  structures,"  he  says,  "consist  of 
heavy  granite  pillars,  on  the  top  of  whicli  Hat  slabs 
of  stone  are  piled  to  a  height  of  nine  or  ten   ftM't.      In 


r 


40 


Sli((li/  (if  Niit'th  AiiKricaii  Airkat'ohxji/. 


wintei-,  blubber  and  moat  are  put  away  upon  those 
])illars,  whicli  aro  sufficiently  ln<i;h  to  koop  thorn  from 
tlio  dogs;  skin  bo;'*'  were  also  ])lacod  on  tlioni." 
This  was  doubtless  tuo  object  in  view  in  building 
those  rudo  structure's,  but  why  the  covering  should  be 
so  thick  and  heavy  is  not  apparent  if  this  wi'ro  the 
only  object. 

Iniploiicntfi,  Ornameiit>^,  etc. 

As  all  the  monuments  and  minor  vestiges  of  art  of 
this  division  are  attributable,  as  already  stated,  to  the 
Eskimo,  the  earliest  forms  that  are  known  differing 
but  slightly  from  those  of  modern  times,  it  is  only 
necessary  here  to  notice  a  few  of  the  more  important 
types  for  the  purpose  of  comparison. 

As  agriculture  is  impracticable  in  the  rigorous  cli- 
mate of  the  Eskimo  region,  and  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence limited  to  animal  food,  the  variety  of  imple- 
ments is  not  largo.  They  coiisist  chiefly  of  such  as 
are  used  in  killing  and  capturing  the  food  animals — 
of  which  the  larger  portion  aro  marine  mammals; 
the  implements  and  vessels  used  in  preparing  and 
cooking  food,  and  in  preparing  the  skins  for  the  va- 
rious uses  to  which  they  are  applied.  The  simplicity 
in  the  Eskimo  manner  of  life,  the  necessary  uni- 
formity in  their  m(>thod  of  i)rocuring  subsistence,  and 
the  manner  of  clothing  themselves,  have  convention- 
alized to  a  groat  extent  their  imj)loments  and  arts. 
As  tlie  struggle  for  e>;isienee  has  been  a  difficult  on(; 
with  them,  and  tlie  clothes  and  dwellings  necessary 
to  ])rotect  tliem  against  th(>  cold  are  ill  adapted  to  fh(i 
use  of  ornami'iiis.  the  variety  of  such  articles  is  (piito 
limited. 


Arriir  Division. 


41 


d 


The  articles  of  stoiu>  and  bone,  wliicli  are  the  only 
ones  riMiuiring  notice  here,  consist  chiefly  of  arrow, 
spear  and  harpoon  lieads,  skin  scrapei-s,  iilum  or 
women's  knives,  adzes,  lamps,  cooking  pots  or  kettles, 
Makers  and  lahriMs. 

The  chipped  flint  he;Hls  of  arrows  and  spears  are 
usually  well  made,  flnely  finished  and  symmetrically 
formed,  tlifl'ei'ing  in  size  and  slightly  in  form  accord- 
ing to  the  particidar  piu'pose  for  which  they  wei'e  in- 
tended. Some  of  the  older  specimens  are  somewhat 
ruder,  but  wotild  undoubtedly  lie  classed  as  neolithic. 

One  of  the  most  useful  and  nec(\ssaiy  implements 
l)elonging  to  an  Eskimo  hotisehold  was  the  Vhi  or 
Woman's  knife,  which,  with  them,  performed  all  that 
is  done  in  enlightened  communities  with  the  various 
cutting  imi)lements  of  the  butcher-shop  and  the 
household  kitchen.  The  simph^st  form  was  a  flake  of 
flint  with  a  cutting  (Mlge,  but  with  the  Eskimo  tliey 
were  usually  nuide  in  a  ])articular  foi-ni,  and,  with  th«' 
handle,  resembled  the 
ordinary  kitcluMi  chop- 
ping-knife,  wlach,  in 
fad,  has  to  a  large  ex-  \-r 
tent  replaced  the  stone 
implement.  Tlu^  l)lade 
was  of  horns  tone, 
chert,  or  flitU  material 
and  slate,  especially 
the  latter.  (Fig.  o.) 
Another  inilispensai)l(> 
household  arlicl  •  was  tlu^  lamp,  which  furnished  both 
heat  and  light.  These  were  usually  of  s<)a])stone, 
thouii'h  a  few  of  other  stone  have  been  discovercnl.     The 


Fi^.  5.    rill,  or  woiiKin's  knife,  I'skinio. 


42 


Stmh/  of  Nurth  American  Archaeology. 


form  of  tliis  vessel  was  not  so  strictly  convontionalizcd 
as  tliat  of  the  kettle  or  cookin*^  pot,  though  generally 
dish-sha])e(l  and  shallow.  (Fig.  2.)  A  semicircular 
form  was  also  common,  the  length  varying  from  six 
inches  to  nearly  three  f(>et. 

Before   the  introduction    of    European   vessels    the 
cooking  was  usually  done  in  soapstone  pots  or  kettles 


Fig.  U.     SoapBtoue  pot,  Eskimo. 

by  placing  llu'iu  over  ihe  lamps  or  putting  heated 
stones  la  the  water.  They  were  comparatively  small, 
vai-ying  in  capacity  from  a  i)int  to  a  gallon,  rectangu- 
lar in  outline  with  the  sides  perpendicular  or  slightly 
flaring.      ( I'^ig.  (>.) 


KijJ.  7      Ihil'tdl  jiidc  adze,  Kskiiiio. 


Arctic  Dirixioii. 


43 


V 


Even  at  tlio  present  day,  accoi'din.i^  to  Mr.  Murdoch, 
tlie  Eskimo  of  Point  Barrow  usv.  no  tool  for  shaping- 
largo  pieces  of  woodwork  except  a  short-handled  ad/e, 
hafted  in  the  same  manner  as  the  old  stone  tools 
wliich  were  employed  before  the  inti'oduetion  of  ii'oii. 
(  Fig.  7.)  The  skin  scraper  usually  consisted  of  a 
blunt  stone  blade  moiint(Hl  in  a  shoi't  thick  haft  of 
wood  or  ivory,  fitting  ex- 
actly to  the  inside  of  the 
iiand  and  liaving  lioles 
or  depressions   to    receiv(^  L'J^  H 

the    fingers    and    thumb. 

The  art  of  making  (lint  arrow  and  spear  heads  has 
not  been  entirely  lost  by  the  Eskimo.  Flint  ])ebbles 
are  splintered  by  percussion  into  fragments  of  suitable 
siz(>,  and  the  sharp-edged  si)alls  ai'o  flaked  into  sliape 
with  an  implem(>nt  consisting  of  a  short  sti'aight  rod 
of  flint  or  bone  mounted  in  a  slioi-t  curved  liaft 
groov(Hl  foi"  its  nu'eptioti.      (Fig.  9.) 


Fi>;.  9.     I'"lint  flakcr,  F.skimo. 

CuHuri'-liomr  of  tJic  Eskimo. 

The  origin  of  the  Eskimo  or  Tnnuit  is  a  question 
which  has  been  much  discussed,  but  as  yet  remains 
undecided.  The  generally-accepted  theory  has  been 
that  they  migrated  from  north-eastern  Asl.i  bv  way  of 
B(>hring  Strait.  Recently,  however,  several  wrut-rs. 
amonu;   whom   are    two   oi-   three   who   have    made    a 


44 


Stinlji  tif  Xarfli  AiiKricdit  Arclincnlngii. 


special  study  of  tluMii.  liavo  roaclied  tlic  coiichision 
that  tlu'v  AV(M'i>  originally  an  inland  ])('()i)l('  of  Ni»rth 
AniiM'ica,  and  tliat  thcii"  inigrat ions -were  towai'd   "he 


noi'th 


1  and  west. 


'V\ 


us  cont'liision    IS   hascc 


I   t 


o  a   coii- 


sid('ral)k'  cxlonl  u[)on  the  ovidcncc.  now  n-cnci'aljy  ac- 
t'cpird,  that  tho  Asiatic  F.skinio  (the  )'»//),  dwc'.liiig^ 
ai'ound  East  C'apo  and  to  the  south  <^)f  it,  initfi'atcd  in 
late  pfehistoi'ic  times  fi-oni  America,  and  that  rdc 
Aleuts  iidiahitiiiii;  the  islands  niuved  in  tli(>  same  di- 
rection. 

As  any  opinion  which  may  lu-  advanced  on  this 
(piestion  is  at  l)est  hut  conjecture,  the  sul)ject  does  not 
come  ])ro[)erly  within  the  scope  of  ilie  present  work. 
'rher(>  is,  how(>ver,  a  closely  co<rnaie  ])i'ol)]en'  which 
olTers  greater  j)rohal)ility  of  final  solutioe.,  and  which 
is  of  importanc(>  \\\  the  study  of  the  prehistoric  times 
of  our  continent.  As  we'l  state<l  hy  Dr.  Ivink.  who 
has  made  this  arctic  jx'ople  well  nigh  a  life  study,  "In 
regard  to  th(>  cradle  of  the  l'>skimo  race,  we  have 
before  all  to  discern  between  their  original  hom<'  and 
the  couiiti-y  in  which  they  developed  their  pi'' sent 
culture,  which  is  characteri/.(Hl  by  their  ca|)al)ility  of 
procuring  means  of  subsistence  in  arctic  regions. 
where  no  other  nation  can  live."  lie  \\\v\\  points  out 
some  "necessary  conditions  for  guc^ssing  the  site"'  of 
this  cultui'e-h(»m(>. 

Allud'Hg  to  the  vast  shore  line  which  was,  so  far  as 
known,  occupied  Iivthc  Eskimo  as  its  only  inhabitants 
hrforo  their  modern  contact  with  the  iMiropean  race, 
he  divides  them  into  I'lastern  and  Western,  separated 
by  Cape  Btithurst.  lie  assumes  as  a  basis,  which  is 
admitted  to  be  correct  l)y  those  who  dill'er  from  him, 
first,  thitt  onlv  one  such  cidt  ure-hoine  can  have  e.\ist(>d, 


re 


ot 


Da 


ol 
lai 
na 
th^ 


fol 


A  relic  f)/ris/oii. 


4." 


and  srcond,  tlial  cvoii  this  .,i,,.  ,„„si  hnw  \>vvn  of 
relatively  small  cxicnt.  'I'hc  cxt  raonliiiarv  unlfonnitv 
of  thoiitcnsils,  iiistruincnis  and  weapons'  coinnioii  to 
idl  tlie  widcly-spn-ad  tribes  op  <r,.<,ups,  ;!iid  the  eoin- 
paraiivf'ly  slio'ht  vai'iatioii  in  lanmiauv,  is  sim-i^^cstivc 
of  ;i  common  oi-io-in.  Jle  then  shows  from  the 'vocabu- 
laries of  the  dilleront  sections  the  identity  of  the 
names  jriven  by  the  EasK-rn  and  Western  c,rfoups  to 
the  animals  iis(«d  as  foo<l,  boats,  vessels,  implements, 
etc.,  M-ivin.i,'  a  list  which  excludes  the  possibility  of 
accidental  likeness.  T.)  this  is  added  the  similarity 
in  form  and  use  of  th(>  vessels  an.l  implements  re- 
ferred to. 

The  direction  of  the  migration  is  assumed  from  the 
following  facts  : 

The  gradual  comi)h>ti..n  of  the  kavak  with  its  im- 
plements, and  the  art  of  using  them.  Th(>  gradual 
change  of  several  customs  in  pro(v<>(ling  from  th(> 
south  and  west  to  the  north  an<l  vus\,  m.melv,  the 
use  of  labrets  or  lip  ornatneitts  ceasing  at  tlu>  Mac- 
Ken/ie  River,  the  use  of  masks  at  festivals  ceasing  in 
liafliii's  Land,  and  the  women"s  hair  dressing  gradu- 
ally changing  beiween  Point  liarrow  and '"iCiliin's 
P.ay,  and  the  change-  in  the  houses  in  certain  par- 
ticidars. 

These  indicate  that  th(>  mov(>ment  was  fr  )m  th(>  (>x- 
ti-eme  west,  or  Alaska,  toward  the  (>asl,  and  this  Dr. 
Rink  believes  is  the  iru(>  solution,  of  tlw  probh-m. 

On   the   other   haiuL    Mr.    Murdoch    and    Dr.    IJoas 
who    have   personally  .studied    the    race   on    opposite 
sides  of  tin*  continent,  l)eli(>ve  th<-  cuiture-home  was 
in  the  interior  about  the  south  end  of   Hudson's   Bav 
whence  they  separated  into   three  prin.dpal  divisi.m's". 


r 


46 


Study  of  North  Anirr/ran  Arrliarolofjif. 


Olio  jjoing  north-t'jist,  anotlior  nortli,  nnd  tlio  other 
north-wt'st.  This  opinion  is  based  cliieliy  on  the 
primitive  art  of  the  central  region,  tlio  form  of  tlie 
sinew  bow,  and  the  westward  movement  above  r(^- 
f(>rred  to.  Tt  would  seem  difficult,  however,  to  ac- 
count upon  tliis  theory  for  the  adoption  of  the  kayak 
and  its  accompaniments,  and  the  application  of  the 
same  t(M-ms  tliroughout  tlio  exti-nded  region  where 
they  arc  found,  oftiMi  in  widely  sejjarated  groups, 
between  whicli  intercourse  is  excectlingly  rare.  The 
settlement  of  this  question,  which  appears  possible 
with  the  accumulation  of  data,  is  important  to  the 
study  of  ethnology.  If  the  latter  theory  be  correct, 
it  will  have  a  material  bearing  on  the  tlieories  in  re- 
gard to  the  course  of  migration  of  the  Indian  popula- 
tion south  and  west  of  this  assumed  inland  culture- 
home,  for  it  is  not  probable  that  any  people  who  have 
acquired  their  habits  in  an  interior  area,  and  com- 
p:\ratively  moderate  climate,  would  leave  it,  except 
under  strong  pressure,  to  take  up  their  abode  in  such 
inliospitable  regions  as  they  now  occupy. 

All  the  implements  and  works  of  the  Eskimo  appear 
to  be  adapted  to  their  peculiar  conditions  and  tli(>ir 
only  means  of  subsistence  and  preservation  of  life. 
They  are  very  largely  those  of  a  littoral  and  arctic 
people,  developed  through  the  necessity  of  procuring, 
to  a  large  extent,  subsistence  from  the  sea  and  defend- 
ing themselves  from  the  cold  without  material  derived 
from  the  forest.  Many  of  the  articles,  it  is  true,  are 
adapted  to  savage  life  in  any  section,  whether  in  the 
interior  or  on  the  coast,  whether  in  an  arctic  or 
tc.iiperate  climate,  but  on  the  other  hand  many  others 
are  suited  only  to  the  conditions  under  which  they 


A  rctlr  I)i riaiiut . 


47 


live.  Hence  it  must  1)(>  assumed,  unless  valid  reasons 
for  ji  different  conclusion  are  sliown,  that  t]ios(*  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  the  situation  were  develop(>d  in 
iho  area  wliere  tliey  are  found,  or  one  similar  in  its 
conditions. 

Mr.  Murdoch's  su<;gestioii  that  tli(>  use  of  labrets  is 
u  habit  which  has  worked  its  way  aloni^  the  western 
coast  of  AmtM'ica  fi-oin  the  south  is  worthv  of  con- 
sideration, thouifh  it  does  not  ap[)ear  to  strengthen 
liis  theory,  but  tends  ratlier  to  support  the  ()])posite 
conclusion.  Nevertheless  it  is  not  without  support, 
and  opens  up  a  new  line  for  thou.<fht  and  investiga- 
tion, and  furnish(>s  an  additional  jiointer  to  a  par- 
ticular region  of  the  western  coast  which  ])ossil)lv 
may  have  i)layed  an  importaiu  part  in  the  peopling  of 
th(^  continent. 


48 


Slndij  iij   .\iiiili  Aim  I'lcihi  ArchniuUxjii . 


CWWYVM    V. 


AII.ANIU      |il\  ISION. 


This  (livisidii  iiicliidcs  ifco^rMphicallv,  as  iKM'fMot'oi'c 
indicated,  all  that  paiM  of  N'oi'lh  Ainci'ica  cast  of  the 
llocky  Mountains  iiorili  of  tlic  Hio  (Ji-aiuh'  and  (Uilf 
of  Mexico,  except  thai  ])of(ion  enii)i'aced  in  tlie  Arctic 
division  and  except  also  the  area  occupied  by  the 
northern  Atliapascan  or  hene  trihes. 

.M  tlie  tiin<'  I'airopeans  heiian  to  ph'int  coloni(>s  in 
tliis  region  it  was  occupied  by  Indians  hehm^ini;' 
chielly  to  some  foiii'  oi"  live  lini^nistic  stocks.  Tlie 
northern  ])ortioii  fi'oni  Labrador  to  the  I\ocky  Mount- 
ains, th(>  central  ai-ea  east  of  the  Mississippi  from  tho 
lakes  south  to  Tennesse(>,  and  a  strip  aloni^  tho  At- 
lantic coast  from  the  (liilf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Pamlico 
Sound,  was  occupied  l)y  the  j^roat  Al<i;on(piian  stock. 
( Jatliered  about  lakes  lOrie  and  Ontario,  both  north  and 
soulli,  stretchinjjj  down  both  sid(>s  of  th(>  St.  LawrcMic*' 
to  (Quebec,  and  extendinij;  over  New  Yor'k  and  most  of 
Lasteni  P(>nnsvivania,  was  the  h'oquoian  family,  be- 
lon_<i;in<r  to  which  were  outlyin<f  groups  along  the 
south-eastern  border  of  N'irginia,  and  about  tho  h(>ad- 
waters  of  tlu>  Tenness(>o  and  Savannah  rivers.  Tho 
Miiskhogoan  family  occupiecl  most  of  the  ar(>a  embraced 
ill  tho  southern  states  east  of  the  Afississippi.  Ex- 
tending westward  from  the  Mississippi  river — from  its 
lioadwatei's  to  the  Arkansas — across  tho  broad  ])lains 
of  tho  west,  and  occupying  most  of  tho  draiiKigo  area 


Atlantic  Dirinioi}, 


49 


'O 


10 
Ml 

x- 

ts 

IS 


of  the  Missouri  and  Ai'kiiiisas  rivcM's,  was  [ho  Sioiian 
stock,  the  Bedouin  of  Noi'tli  America.  Hcloiigini^  to 
tliis  (froup  wcn^  sonic  scattered  fragments,  one  along 
the  piedmont  region  of  X'irginia  and  tli(*  Carolinas, 
and  one  of  small  size  on  tlie  southern  coast  of  Missis- 
sippi and  another  in  Ai'kansas.  Uesides  these  there 
were  the  Catldoan  stock,  chiefly  in  western  Louisiana 
and  eastern  Texas;  the  Timu(|uanan  occupying  the 
Florida  p(>ninsula,  and  some,  few  in  numbers,  covering 
small  at'eas  chielly  about  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  archaeological  conditions  we  encoimt(M'  in  this 
area  are  so  widely  distinct  from  those  of  the  Arctic 
division  as  to  retpiire  but  little  thought  or  study  to 
mark  the  dill'erences.  It  is  true  we  find  hero  Hint 
arrow-  and  lance-heads  in  abundanc(\  some  of  them 
bearing  a  close  ivsemblance  to  and  scarcely  distin- 
guishable from  tliose  of  the  Eskimo.  ChippcMl  stones 
of  a  ci'rtain  form,  which  aiv  supposed  to  be  skin- 
scrapers  or  skinning  implenuMits,  ai"e  also  found  in 
great  numbers,  and  though  many  of  them  may  l)e 
compared  with  the  Hint  points  of  the  Kskimo  scrapers, 
yet  the  manner  in  which  tlu>y  w(M-e  hafted,  or  wliether 
hafted  at  all,  is  in  most  instances  only  a  surmise.  It 
is  noticeable  that  of  the  lifty-six  American  scrapers 
Hgured  in  Prof.  O.  T.  Mason's  "Aboriginal  Skin 
Dressing"  (Kept.  Nat.  Museum,  1888-9),  all  except 
live  are  Eskimo,  and  the  live  are  ad/e  shaped  and 
have  iron  or  steel  points.  The  elbow  duiped  handle 
may  be  a  survival  from  the  stone  age,  nevertheless  it 
is  possible  that  the  advent  of  iron  may  have  worked 
some  change  in  form.  Local  monuitients,  as  we  have 
seen,  except,  refuse  heaps,  foundations  of  old  iglus 
3 


50 


Study  of  North  Anurican  Archaeology, 


and  somo  ancient  j^ravcs,  arc  unknown  to  the  at'ctu' 
section.  On  tlie  contrary,  in  the  area  wo  are  now  on- 
terinj^  upon,  the  Mississippi  valley,  from  tho  head- 
waters in  Minnesota  to  the  Ri'd  lliver  of  Louisiana, 
and  from  tho  sourci^s  of  tlio  Ohio  to  tho  hordor  of 
tlu'  western  i)hdns,  is  ik>tted  over  with  earthen  mounds, 
ckistered  into  j^roups  or  scattered  sin<^ly  ;  hero  and 
there  hills  and  hi  nil's  are  crowned  with  tlofonsivo 
works,  indicatint;  tribal  warfare  ;  throuj^liout  southern 
Illinois,  KcMitucky  and  Tennessee  the  rude  stone  sep- 
ulchors  of  tho  ancient  inhabitants  are  found  in  ^reat 
numbers  ;  and  other  evidences  of  prehistoric  occupancy 
abound.  Thus  it  will  bo  seen  that  tho  ditfere.ice 
archaoologically  between  tho  two  divisions  is  a  wide 
one. 


Monuments,  or  local  antiquities. 

Tho  antiquities  of  this  class  found  in  this  division 
consist  chieHy  of  earthworks,  stoneworks,  crnives,  cave 
deposits  and  mines  and  quarries,  and  might  bo  classed 
under  those  heads  but  for  tho  fact  that  somo  belong 
partly  to  one  class  and  partly  to  another;  then  there 
are  certain  other  local  anticpiities  which  can  not  pos- 
sibly be  classed  under  either  of  those  headings.  If  it 
were  possible  to  decide  positively  as  to  tho  use  of  each 
type,  this  would  afford  one  means  of  classification, 
but  unfortunately  here  our  knowledge  is  sadly  at 
fault.  Howev'or,  as  some  arrangement  for  the  con- 
venience of  reference  is  necessary,  they  will  be 
grouped  here  by  leading  typos  under  the  following 
heads  :  Mounds,  Refuse  Heaps,  Inclosures,  Hut-rings, 
Excavations,  Graves  and  ('Ometeries,  Garden  Beds, 
Hearths  or  Camp  Sites,  and  Ancient  Trails.     Besides 


Atliintii'  1)lrlxi.i)ii . 


61 


tlioso  thern  an>  Mines  and  Quarries,  Ciivo  Doposits 
jiiid  Ptitrot^lyplis.  That  the  particular  sense  in  which 
.soino  of  thes('  terms  are  used  in  this  work  may  be 
t'learly  inidorstood,  the  following  exphmation  is  given  : 


Moinuh. 

The  tumuli  or  true  mounds,  to  which  th(>  term  will 
be  limited  in  this  work,  arc  the  most  common  and 
most  num(>rous  (A  the  fixed  anticpiities,  being  found 
in  the  valley  of  the  R(>d  River  of  the  North  from  its 
source  to  its  mouth,  and  here  and  there  an  isolated 
one  in  Canada  ;  throughout  th(>  Mississijjpi  valley  and 
the  r(><jio!i  south  of  the  jxreat  lakes  to  the  i;ulf  thev 
<"onstitute  th(>  larger  portion  of  the  num(>rous  groups, 
it  being  exceetlingly  rare  to  find  a  gi'oup  in  which 
tliey  do  not  occur.  Although  th(>  forms  an^  various, 
they  may  b(>  classed  as  conical  tumuli,  elongate  or 
Avail  mounds,  pyramidal  mounds,  and  efligy  mounds. 

The  conical  tumidi  are  artificial  hillocks  cast  up 
with  some  special  object  in  view,  and  not  mere  accu- 
mulations of  debris.  The  form  is  usually  that  of  a 
low,  broad,  round-topped  con(>,  but  as  at  present 
found  is,  in  coiisequence  of  Avear  and  tear  by  the 
plow  and  the  elements,  often  that  of  an  irregular 
heap,  distinguished  from  the  refuse  heap  only  by  in- 
ternal evidence.  They  vary  in  size  from  a  scarcely 
IXM'ceptiblo  swell  in  the  ground  to  elevations  of  eighty 
or  ninety  feet,  and  from  six  or  eight  to  three  hundred 
feet  in  diameter.  The  outline  is  generally  approxi- 
mately circular  where  tluy  retain  tlunr  original  shape, 
though  many  aiO  oblong  or  oval  and  some  pear- 
shaped.     Most  of  the  Burial  Mounds  are  of  this  type. 

The  works  to  which  the   name   "Elongate  or  Wall 


r 


OZ 


IStuily  of  yort/i  Aiiict'ican  Archacoloijy. 


t 


K/looNOS  ON  P*RM  or  BG  Thomas. 
Fa5tm*n    township,  Cr*vfopo  Co 

A/iSCONSiN 

too  ^o 


Fig.  10.     I'latof  mound  trronj),  Wisconsin. 


AfJanfic  Divifiion. 


53 


Mounds''  is  applied  arc  certain  linear  earthen  struc- 
tures which  seem  to  be  confined  almost  exclusively  to 
the  effigy-mound  region  mentioned  below.  The  only 
external  characteristic  which  distinguishes  them  from 
the  oblong  mound  of  the  conical  type  is  their  wall- 
like  appearance  ;  in  truth  the  longer  ones  may  be 
properly  called  walls,  if  we  judge  by  the  form  alone. 
This  characteristic  is  apparent  even  when  the  length 
is  not  great  as  compared  with  the  width.  Usually  the 
length  is  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred 
feet,  though  some  are  found  as  short  as  fifty  while 
others  extend  to  nine  hundred  ;  the  width  varies  from 
twenty  to  forty  feet,  and  the  height  seldom  exceeds 
four  feet.  They  appear  to  be  simple  lines  of  earth 
cast  up  from  the  adjoining  surface,  but  with  what  ob- 
ject in  view  is  vuiknown  ;  however,  they  are  seldom 
used  as  burial-places,  and  even  where  so  used  it  is  ap- 
parently an  after-thought.      (Fig.  10.) 

The  typical  form  of  the  Pyramidal  Mounds  is  the 
truncated,  quadrangular  pyramid ;  some,  however, 
are  circular  or  oval  and  a  few  pentangular,  but  are 
distinguished  from  the  conical  type  chiefly  by  the  flat 
top  or  truncated  form.  In  some  instances,  as  in  the 
Marietta  group,  Ohio,  they  are  so  reduced  in  height, 
compared  with  extent,  as  to  assume  the  appearance  of 
earthen  platforms ;  others  luive  terraces  extending 
outAvard  from  one  or  two  sides,  and  others  a  ramp  or 
roadway  leading  up  to  the  level  surface.  Jn  conse- 
quence of  wearing  by  the  plow  and  elements  the  sharp 
outlines  have,  in  many  instances,  been  obliterated  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  determine 
the  original  form.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  in 
Ohio,   Indiana   and    northern   Illinois,  works  of  this 


54  Sladi/  of  y<iiili.  Anicrlcan  Archacoluijy. 


c 

ci 


a 

3 

o 


^3 
CD 


V^-,..-^'? 


'',lllg". 


Atlantic  I))ri:<ion. 


55 


a 


s 

3 
O 


type  aro  limited  almost  exclusively  to  southern   Illi- 
nois,   south-eastern    Missouri,    Arkansas,    Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  South  (Carolina  and  the  Gulf  States.     The 
two  jnost  extensive  groups  in  the  division,  consistin<r 
chiefly  of  mounds  of  this  form,  are  widelv  separated"; 
one  is  located  in  Illinois  a  few  miles  east  of  St.  Louis 
which    includes   the  giant    Cahokia   mound,  and  tlie 
other  near  Carthage,   Alabama.     Th(>   h.^st  examples 
of  terraced   mounds  are  found   in  ,>ast(M-n  Arkansas 
one    of    which    is    shown    in     tlie    annexed    ficrure' 
(Fig.  11.)  *=       • 

Ther(>  is  a  somewhat  dilFerent  form  from  eith(>r  of 
those  mentioncHi  wliich  is  intermediat(«  IxMwcvn   the 
conical    and    pyramidal    types,    though    classed    here 
with    th(^    latter,   as   a   ])ersonal   examination   by  tlie 
writer  of  (>xami)les  wid(>ly  separated  geographically 
has  convinced  him  tliat  they  are  slight  modifications 
of    tlie   ])yramidal    type   with    ramps.      Examples    of 
both   forms   are  seen  together  in  the   "Rich  Woods" 
group,    S(.uth-(>astern    Missouri.       In     this    class    tlu^ 
main  tumidus  is  really  conical  or  oval,  usually  witli  a 
ramp  extcMiding  outward  on  one  side  in  the  form  of  a 
ridge;  or  oval  in  form   and  the  whole   upper  surface 
slightly  rounded  and  sloping  toward  oii(>  end. 

The  most  singular  eai-tlien  structures  found  on  the 
contimMit  ar(>  those  representing  animals,  and  usually 
known  as  "Kffigy  Mounds."  Th,>v  an-  limited  geo- 
graphically,  almost  exclusively,  to  Wisconsin  and'the 
iinmediatidy  adjoining  portions  of  Illinois  and  Iowa  • 
some  two  or  three  are  found  in  Ohio  and  two  in 
(Jeorgia;  it  is  reported  that  some  (>xampl,^s  have  been 
discovered  in  the  "Bad  Lands"  of  Dakota  ;  this,  how- 
ever, has   not  been   confirmed.     The   animals  which 


r 


Lmf' 


56 


Study  of  North  Avierican  Archaeology. 


are  represented,  so  far  as  they  can  bo  determined,  are 
those  known  to  tlie  modern  fauna  of  the  region  occu- 
pied, the  supposed  elephant  mound  being  in  all 
probability  intended  for  a  bor  r,  as  the  proboscis  ap- 
pears to  have  been  an  accidental  addition  of  shifting 
sand,  varying  in  shape  at  different  times,  which  had 
entirely  disappeared  when  the  survey  under  the 
author's   direction    was    n  ade   in    1884.      (Fig.    12.) 


Fig.  12.     Elephant  mound,  Wisconsin. 

Examples  of  tliis  type  are  seen  in  Fig.  10.  The 
author  may  be  excused  for  expressing  his  surprise  at 
the  truly  imitative  curving  and  rounding  of  the  body 
of  the  animal  in  some  of  the  examples  which  hav«^ 
come  under  his  obser^^ation.  Standing  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  one  which  has  suffered  but  little  weathei'- 
ing  (us  the  bear  in  Fig.  10) ,  ho  was  almost  persuaded 
that  the  Iniilders  had  the  animal  lying  before  them  as 
a  model.  The  greater  numln'r,  however,  a'e  but 
rude  representations,  yet  there  is  never  any  difHculty 
in  assigning  them  to  the   pro])er  classes.     They  vary 


Atlantic  Division. 


l^t 


in  longtli  from  fiftv  to  four  luindrod  foot,  ami  in 
heiglit  from  a  fow  inclios  to  four  or  fivo  feet.  Whoro 
placed  near  streams  the  head^  usually  point  down 
stream. 

As  a  general  rule,  no  special  order  appears  to  have 
been  observed  in  the  arrangement  of  mounds  in 
groups,  those  being  scattered  irregularly  over  the  area 
occupied,  the  position  being  governed  to  some  extent 
by  the  topograi)hy.  There  are,  however,  some  excep- 
tions to  this  rule.  A  somewhat  remarkable  one  oc- 
curs in  the  region  where  the  effigy  mounds  prevail. 
Here  we  frequently  find  the  conical  tumuli  of  a  group 
arranged  in  one  or  two  lines,  usually  straight  or 
nearly  so,  and  somewhat  evenly  spaced.  This  may 
be  attributable  in  some  cases  to  the  topography,  yet 
there  are  a  number  of  instances  where  this  arrange- 
ment has  been  adopted  on  level  areas  of  ample  extent, 
and  where  no  special  reason  therefor  is  apparent. 
What  renders  this  the  more  interesting  is  the  fact 
that  in  the  same  section  lines  of  similar  mounds 
frequently  occur,  where  they  are  connected  with  one 
another  by  low  embankments.  An  example  of  this 
kind  is  soon  in  Fig.  13.     The  surrounding  walls  of 


r 


Fig.  13.    Group  of  chain  mounds,  Wisconsin. 


■the  noted  group  in  Wisconsin,  known  as  "Aztalan," 
and    an  extensive  group  in  Vandorburg  comity.   In- 


.)8 


Stiidi/  (if  Xiiii}i  Anirriciiii  Archaeology. 


(liana,  ajipoar  to  be  but  slijjjht  inoditications  of  tlic 
chain-nioiiiul  typo.  As  tlic  «'longatt'  mounds  arc 
found  in  tlie^  same  section,  it  is  possible  tliat  the  tliroe 
types — lines  of  conical  tumuli,  cliain  mounds,  as  iht- 
connect(>d  s(M'i(>s  are  named,  and  the  wall  mounds — 
are  stejjs  in  an  evolutionary  i)rocess,  probably  from 
the  solid  to  the  s<^parated. 

So  far  as  mounds  of  these  seri(>s  have  been  exam- 
ined, no  evidence  has  Ikh'U  found  to  justify  the  beli(>f 
that  tlu^y  were  intended  iis  burial-phuH-s.  On  the 
contrary,  as  they  ai'e  usuaHy  low  and  flattened,  and 
fre(iuently  contain  indications  of  tire,  they  are  be- 
lieved to  be  h.ouse  or  wi<j;\vam  sites.  One  of  the 
iji'oups  containing  moiuid  series  of  these  types  is  in 
the  precise  locality  Winnebag'o  Indians  ai'o  known  to 
have  occui)ied. 

Although  rich,  dry  alluvial  areas  in  the  vicinity  of 
a  str(>am  or  a  lake  were  favorite  localities  with  the 
mound-builders,  the  necessity  for  guarding  against 
the  approach  of  enemies,  of  being  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
food  and  wat(>r  sui)ply,  and  other  r(>asons  which  gov- 
erned the  location  of  native  villages,  variinl  this  rule. 
Hence  wo  find  nuin(>rous  anc'ent  works  on  the  rv- 
stricted  summits  of  hills  and  blull's,  on  the  islets  and 
luunmocks  in  the  midst  of  swamps  and  marshes,  and 
along  the  narrow  vallevs  and  even  deliles  of  mountain 
regions.  Nor  are  they  wanting  on  the  bottom  lands 
of  large  rivers  where  the  area  is  sul)ject  to  occasional 
overflow.  From  these  facts  may  be  legitimately  di'awn 
the  inference  that  the  ancient  inhabitants  who  con- 
structed tlvese  works  were  split  into  numerous  hostile 
tribes,  the  stronger  occujiying  the  level  and  choice 
localities,  while  the  weaker  were  forced  to  seek  refug(> 


Atlantir  Dinniov. 


59 


in  tlic  ru<;<f('(I  I'cgions  oi-  amid  tlie  swuinps  and 
marshes. 

Soin(>  of  i\\v  (-nijiiics  of  Wisconsin  occur  on  quite 
steep  liillsides,  and  otlier.s  on  crested  spurs  -vvliero  tlie 
summit  is  so  narrow  as  to  necessitate  lappin<^  ov(>r 
from  ono  side  to  the  other;  and  some  of  the  loiij;' 
mounds  an^  found  ruiuiin*^  directly  or  ohliquely  down 
quite  steep  slopes,  in  some  instances,  as  in  Calhoun 
c  Hinty,  Illinois,  and  north-eastern  Misst)uri,  long 
lines  of  conical  tumuli,  usually  showing  evidences  of 
burial,  occur  on  tlu*  sharp  crests  of  ridges  so  narrow 
as  to  barely  all'ord  s[)a('e  for  their  construction.  Oc- 
casionally they  are  placed  immediately  on  the  margin 
of  a  ])recipiLous  blull'.  Hundreds  of  grou])s,  some  of 
which  are  qnit(?  e\t(Misive,  ar(^  located  on  the  low 
ridges  and  luimmocks  in  the  swampy  regions  of  south- 
eastci'u  Missoui'i  and  north-(»astern  Arkansas  ;  in  fact, 
oiHi  of  t'he  richest  archaeologic  fields  of  the  Atlantic 
division  is  found  in  this  section  :  it  is  ])re-emin(Milly 
the  region  <»f  ancient  j)otterv. 

The  general  distribution  of  the  mounds  and  other 
ancient  works  of  that  i)ortion  of  the  division  in  the 
United  States  juay  be  seen  l)y  referiMice  to  the  map 
coinpil(>d  under  the  direction  of  the  author  and  pub- 
lished by  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  in  the  I'ith  Annual 
Report.  It  is  seen  by  examining  this,  that  the  areas 
where  these  i)reliistoric  works  are  most  abundant  are 
central  and  western  New  York  ;  eastern  and  southern 
Michigan  ;  tlu  banks  of  the  Mississippi  from  La  Crosse, 
Wisconsin,  to  Natchez,  Mississii)pi  ;  the  central  and 
south-western  ])art  of  Ohio  and  adjoining  portion  of 
Iiu'liana;  central  and  western  Kentucky;  middle  and 
t'astern   Tennessee ;    and    tlu>    south-west    corner   of 


60 


Stiuly  of  Xorth  American  Archaeology . 


North  prol' 
The  ea  i  •  ^ 
lieaps.     1: 


and  nortl)-(>ast  corner  of  Georgia. 
>f  Florida  is  well  dotted  with  shell- 
^^  1)0  interestini'  to  refer  to  the  sug- 
'  of  this  map  brings  before  the 


gestions  wiiu'li  a  si ; 
mind,  but  this  must  b(>  left  chiefly  to  the  reader. 
There  are  however  one  or  two  inferences  which  appear 
legitimate  that  r.iay  be  properly  mentionetl  here.  One 
is  that  the  greater  numbers  on  some  areas  com- 
pannl  with  ethers  is  owing  in  part  to  the  more  thor- 
ough explor.ition  of  'hese  areas,  3-et  it  is  not  probable 
that  future  exi)loi'ations  will  materially  change  the 
map  in  this  resp  ct.  Another  is  that  the  statement 
frequently  made  hy  authors  that  the  mound  distribu- 
tion continues  through  Texas  is  incorrect.  It  would 
also  appear  to  be  a  fair  inference,  judging  by  the  map, 
that  there  were  no  important  movements  of  popula- 
tion to  or  from  the  south-west.  The  almost  total  ab- 
sence of  mounds  east  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  is 
also  a  mark(Ml  feature. 


Burial  MuuiuIh 


61 


CHAPTER  VI. 


HiniAl,    MOCNDS. 

Ilavinjr  studied  the  form  mikI  vxivnui]  iu>]h  avco. 
of  these  silent  monuments  of  the  j.ast,  h"t  is  ivmove 
tlio  sod  with  which  tlio  growth  of  cenluries  1.  ,  orered 
tlieni  and  examine  the  interior  to  s(>.>  wliat  it  has  to 
reveal,  what  it  has  to  tell  us  of  the  i)ast.  Tond)s 
are  often  tln^  tivasure  houses  of  savages  and  seini- 
c'lvili/ed  ])(-oi)le.  Guarded  by  su])erstiti()n  the  treas- 
ures remain  tintouehed  until"  ri(i,.(l  by  ])eople  of  an- 
other race  who  have  no  fear  of  the  deity  invoked  for 
their  protection. 

However,  before  seeking  for  the  hidden  treasures,  we 
will  try  to  answer  the  question,  How  did  the  ancient 
people  do  the  work  r.>,,uired  in  building  these  earthen 
structures?    Though  a  mound  seems  to  be  but  a  simple 
lieap  of  earth  that  calk-d  for  no  skill,  yet  the  question 
IS  a  pertuient  one.     The  mound-btiilders  had  neither 
iron  nor  steel  of  which  to  form  spades  and  shovels 
nor  had  they  beasts  of  burden  to  assist  in  the  trans- 
portation  of   material.     Stone    hoes,   wooden    spades 
and  bivalve  shells  were  prol)ably  the  chief  implements 
thev  used  for  digging  up  the  soil ;  and  baskets,  mats 
and  skins  borne  by  individuals  wer(>  most  likely  the 
means  they  employed   for  transporting  the  material. 
Nor  is   this  wholly  conjecture,   as  stone  implements 
well  adapted  to  this  purpose,  especially  if  luifted,  are 
found   in  almost  every  section.     All  these  implements 


r 


62 


Shidi/  (if  Sin'Oi  Aiiicn'rdii  A  rrharnlofji/. 


as  wo  arc  iiif(»rin(>(l  hy  the  early  o\'))l<)r(M's,  wore  usod 
l>y  tin'  Indians  in  their  a^riculiural  pursuits.  Tlie 
lar<j;e,  r(>uii;lily-('lu[)|)e(l.  leaf-shaped  stone  inii)leinents 
so  al)undant  in  some  sections,  scores  of  whicii  were 
found  by  th(>  a<^entsof  the  Hureaii  of  American  Ethnol- 
<»Uy  at  a  single  point  in  soutliern  Illinois,  were  doubt- 
less used  for  this  |>urpose.  The  tliin-bladed,  so-called 
<^rooved  axes  are  supposed  to  ha\'(>  l)een  used,  wlien 
transversely  hafted,  i)artly  as  tiij^ifint^  implements. 

It  is  often  the  case  when  a  mound  is  car(>fidly  ex- 
cavated and  closely  scanned  as  the  work  proceeds, 
especially  wher(>  the  material  is  clay  t)r  muck,  that 
the  individual  loads  can  readily  be  discerned.  As  the 
eartli  of  which  the  mounds  are  composed  is  usually 
gathered  up  from  th(>  surrounding  surface,  the  int(M'ior 
will  vary  in  color  and  character  oidy  as  the  soil  so 
gathered  up  vai'ies.  This  may  bo  illustrated  by  a 
partial  section  of  a  Mississippi  mound  shown  in  Fig. 
14.  Hero  tho  Iowim*  stratum  (No.  5)  is  black  soil  in 
lumps,  or  small  masses,  ])resumably  tlu^  top  soil  of  tho 
surrounding  surface  ;  No.  4  rod  oarth  in  small  masses  ; 
No,  3  (the  grey  streak  not  numbered  in  the  figure) 
red  clay  ;  No.  2  grey  clay  ;  and  No.  1  the  top  cover- 
ing accumulated  since  the  mound  was  built.  How- 
ever, very  many  of  the  mounds  are  stratified  in  such 
away  as  to  show  that  this  has  been  done  intentionally, 
even  where  it  was  necessary  to  bring  tho  material  for 
one  or  inoro  layers  from  a  distance  of  a  fourth,  or  a  lialf 
a  mile,  or  more.  Th(>  ])laces  from  whenc(>  nuiterial  was 
taken  to  build  the  snuUl  or  mod(>rate  sized  mounds  are 
seldoju  discei'niblo  at  the  i)resent  day,  biU  depressions 
plainly  mark  the  points  about  the  larger  works,  as  the 


Jtliridl  Moiiiids. 


«;:{ 


('iihokiii  jiiid  I''tt)\vah  nioimds  and  some  of  the  iii- 
t'losuros  of  Ohio  and  clscwlicrf'.  In  soino  cases  the 
one  act  lias  been  made  to  servo  two  purposes,  tliat  is 
to  say,  the  earth  used  to  construct  the  mound  or  other 
work  has  been  taken  from  one  or  two  points  so  as  to 
h-ave  a  basin-sliaped  excavation  for  lioldiuLj  wat(M',  or 


r 


Kig.  14.     St'ction  of  a  MisMissippi  mound. 


to  form  a  trench  to  servo  as  a  protective  moat,  or 
for  drainage^  or  other  purposes.  In  some  cases  th;- 
earth  lias  be(>n  taken  from  a  tivnch  immediately 
around  the  mound.  The  latter  aro  inter(>sting,  as  it 
would  seem  therefrom  that  the  comparative  si/(>  of 
the  mound  had  been  detcrmiju'd  b(>fore  beginning  the 
work. 

Mr.  Gerard  Fowke,  who  has  had  considerable  ex- 
perience  in  excavating  mounds  in  various  sections  of 


04 


Study  of  Nurtli  American  Arckaculoyy. 


tlie  country  ami  of  almost  cvory  form  known  to  the 
division,  lias  oxpn'ss(>'l  tlu<  opinion  that  a  mound  one 
hundi-cd  feet  in  dianu'tcr  at  base  and  twenty  feet 
hi<;h,  could  have  been  thrown  up  by  a  hundred  men, 
with  the  means  tho  mound-builders  liad  at  liand,  in 
forty-two  days.  Manjuis  do  Nadaillac  objects  to  this  as- 
sertion as  one  negatived  by  all  tho  data  obtained.  How- 
ever it  is  rather  a  question  of  practical  mathematics 
than  of  ai'chaeoloijy.  A  simple  calculation  is  all  that 
is  necessary  to  show  that  twenty-tive  loads,  each  con- 
taining^ half  a  cubic  foot  of  earth,  carried  ])er  day  l)v 
each  man,  would  complete  tho  mound  in  forty-two 
days.  As  the  usual  distance  tho  loads  had  to  bo  car- 
ried was  from  fifty  to  a  hundr(>d  yards,  and  tho  loose 
top  soil  was  selectetl,  twenty-fivo  loads  of  half  a  cubi(r 
foot  each  is  not  an  unreasonable  allowance.  Tho 
sin<;lo  loads,  as  ])lainly  indicated  by  the  little  biscuit, 
or  ])one-shaped  masses  in  many  of  tho  mounds,  cer- 
tainly cxc(H'd  in  size  this  estimate.  It  would  appear, 
therefore,  that  Mr.  Fowke  was  warranted  in  his  con- 
clusion. 

Tlio  internal  arrangements  or  modifications  relating 
to  or  having  connection  with  ]>urials  are  so  various 
that  only  tho  more  common  and  imj)ortant  can  be  re- 
ferred to  here.  A  typo  quite  common  in  tho  north- 
western portion  of  tho  division,  is  that,  where  a  slight 
excavation  has  been  made  in  the  original  surface  of 
tho  ground  to  receiv^o  tho  body  or  bodies,  or  more 
likely  skeletons,  as  in  many,  if  not  a  majority  of  cases 
of  this  type,  the  flesh  has  been  removed  before  burial, 
the  lower  limbs  drawn  up,  or  tho  bones  disarticulated 
and  bundled,  or  stretched   out  horizontally  and  the 


ti 


Ihd'idl  Mounds. 


65 


■« 


IS 

('- 
1- 


'S 

d 

le 


inouiul  hoapod  ovor  tlicin.  It  was  tiot  unusual  to 
form  the  first  or  lower  laycM*  thrown  ever  them  of 
tou<^h  clay,  which  must  have  Ix'cu,  in  some  instances, 
in  a  i)lastic  state  when  deposited,  as  may  be  judj^ed 
by  the  way  it  has  worked  itself  into  tlu'  cavities  of 
the  .-ikull.  Sonu'times  the  entire  mound  consists  of 
this  hard  clav  laver.  In  mounds  of  this  class  in- 
trusivo  burials  are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
original  ones. 

The  simi)lest  method  of  burial,  of  wliich  examples 
arc  found  in  most  of  thv?  sections,  was  to  lay  the  "out- 
stretched body  or  bodies  on  the  surface  of  the  f  >)und 
and  heap  the  earth  ov(>r  thera.  In  Ohio  and  West 
Virginia  some  examples  occur  where  the  surface  of 
the  ground  was  first  smoothed  and  packed  :  over  this 
was  spread  a  floor  of  bark,  on  which  was  sprinkled  a 
layer  of  ashes  a  few  inches  thick.  The  body  was 
then  laid  on  the  ashes  and  covered  with  bark,  and 
over  tliis  the  mound  was  heaped.  In  some  cases  the 
bodies  are  found  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  wliere  there 
are  several  tliey  are  sometimes  facing  one  another. 
It  is  probable,  liowever,  that  some  of  the  cases  re- 
corded, '  specially  in  the  north-western  section,  were 
really  buudled  skeletons,  the  fact  that  the  bones  were 
in  a  iieap,  with  the  head  on  top,  being  taken  as  proof 
that  they  were  originally  in  a  sitting  posture. 

In  a  majority  of  cases,  no  rule  in  regard  to  the  po- 
sition of  the  bodies  relative  to  the  cardinal  points  was 
observed.  Fig.  15  shows  the  stratification  of  a  mound 
in  eastern  Tennessee  containing  a  large  number  of 
skeletons  all  in  the  lower  layer  {g,  (/,).  The  explana- 
tion of  this  figure  is  as  follows  : 


()() 


Study  of  Xu  ft  It  America  II  Archaculoi/i/. 


ss    "y 


^ 


fi.  a.  Dark  layor  of  sandy  soil,  l-i  feet 
thick. 

J>.  /»,  Tliin  layer  of  Imrnt  elay,  3  to  4 
iiu'lu's. 

r.  <\  Dark  sandy  soil.  2A  feet. 

(/,  '/,  Seeoiul  layer  of  burnt  clay,  3 
inelu>s. 

i\  (\  Dark  sandy  soil,  H  feet. 

/',  /',  Third  layer  of  l)urnt  clay,  '•] 
inches. 

_(/,  7,  Dark  nuicky  soil  (about  4  feet) 
resting  on  the  original  surface  of  the 
ground. 

//,  Central  sliaft  of  alternate  dish- 
>liaped  laycM's  of  burnt  clay  and  ashes. 

/,  /,  Remains  of  upright  cedar  posts. 

Althougli  all  the  skeletons  were  in 
the  bottom  layer,  they  were  not  all,  nor 
even  the  greater  part,  resting  on  th(> 
original  sui'face  of  the  ground,  but  at 
ditlereiit  depths.  All  were  stretched 
out  horizontally  except  two ;  one  of 
these  was  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  the 
otlier  folded  up  and  lying  on  its  right 
side,  and  was  probably  buried  after  the 
flesh  had  been  removed.  It  was  judged 
from  the  indications  that  some,  at  least, 
of  the  burials  were  made  in  this  way  : 
the  body,  after  being  deposited,  was  covered  with  a 
layer  of  cane  or  brusli ;  over  this  was  spread  clay  or 
muck  in  a  plastic  state,  and  upon  this  a  fixe  was  built. 
Amonjj  the  relics  found  in  this  tumulus  were  earthen 
pots  and  basins,  generally  at  the  lieads  of  the  skele- 


Burial  ^Founds. 


G7 


tons  (Fig.  IG);  slioll  hciuls,  slicll  oar  ornaments  (Fii:j. 
17)  and  ]iair-piiis(?);  engraved  shells  similar  to  that 
shown  at    Fig.    IS;    soapstonc   pipes  (Fig.   19);    flint 


r 


Fig,  10.    Earthon  pot,  cast  Tennessee. 

arrow  and  si)ear  heads ;  polished  celts ;  discoidrJ 
stones  ;  bono  impleniiuits  ;  and  one  iron  chisel,  which 
was  by  a  skeleton.  As 
the  skeleton  and  iron 
chisel  lying  with  it  were 
in  the  layer,  g,  g,  they 
mtist  have  b.>en  placed 
before  the  tmbroken  stra- 
tum, /, /,  and  the  other 
undisturbed  strata  above 
were  deposited,  and 
hence  can  not  possibly 
be  attributed  to  an  in- 
trusive, or  even  after 
burial.  It  is  evident  that 
burials  in  the  mound 
ceased  when  layers,  /,  /, 
and  e,  e,  were  deposited, 
unless  tliese  layers  were 

cut,  of  which  there  was     c--    i-    qi   n 

rig.  1/.    ohell  ear  ornament  or 

no  evidence.  hairpin. 


(is 


Study  itf  Xorth  American  Ai'cha.eolo(]i/. 


\n  another  large  niouiul  in  the  same  valley  and  be- 
longing to  the  same  .series,  the  plan  appears  to  have 
l)een  exactly  reversed  :  the  bottom  layer,  which  vas 
level  and  not  rounded  on  top,  was  not  used  for  burial 


Fig.  18.     Engraved  shell,  North  Carolina. 

purposes,  the  heavy  single  layer  above  it  containing 
all  of  the  ninety  skeletons  uneartlied.  This  valley  of 
the  Little  Tennessee  was  occupied,   from   prehistoric 


Fi;.  10.     Soapstonc  pipe,  cast  Tentiessee. 


times  until  their  removal,  by  the  Ov^rhiil  Cherokees, 
wliose  villages  were  located  on  the  precise  spots  where 
the  mound  groups  two  found. 

Another  form  of  burial  lias  hevn  observed  in  west- 


Burial  Mounds. 


69 


r 


a; 
t: 


»: 
C 


C 


fi;v!;iy&^Si!i 


■  i'^  1  V'i' 

■f  .)  \    1'  I    . 

".  -  f  '  i  1   •  '       I      'l 


(!  ,i;ii 


70 


Sludi/  of  Xortli  Auicricdii  Arrliitcoloijy. 


tM'ii  Nortli  Carolitia.  Hero  ;i  circular  or  triangular 
excavation  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  was 
made  :  the  bodies  (or  skeletons)  were  i)laced  on  the 
bottom,  tisually  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  most  of  them 
covered  with  beehive-shaped  vaults  of  cobble-stones 
(Fig.  20).  In  one  instance,  in  Eastern  Tennessee, 
instead  of  an  excavation,  a  wall  was  built  of  col>ble- 
stones  on  the  surface  of  the  grotind,  and  the  vaults 
arranged  within  it.  Similarly  shaped  burial  vaults, 
of  hardened  clay,  have  been  discovered  in  West  Vir- 
ginia mounds.  Many  important  relics  were  obtained 
from  the  North  Carolina  mounds  ;  among  otlu.'r  things 
some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  engraved  shells  which 
have  been  found  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  18);  also 
soapstono   pipes   with   stems,  bearing  a  clo^^o   resern- 


Kifjr.  21.     Soapstone  pipe,  North  Carolina. 


blance  to  the  old-fashioned  clay  pipes  of  the  whites 
(Fig.  21).  It  is  somewhat  singular  tliat  although 
James  Adair,  in  his  "History  of  the  American  In- 
dians," describes  the  soapstone  pipes  made  by  the 
Cherokees  as  precisely  of  the  form  of  what  is  known 
as  the  "Monitor  Pipe,"'  mentioned  below  (Fig.  40)  ; 
none  of  those  discovered  in  North  Carolina  or  east 
Tennessee  moiMids  are  of  ])recisely  that  form,  though 
probably  mod'tications  of  it. 

Another  important  modi"  of  burial,  both  in  mounds 
and  in  cemeteries,  was  in  l)ox-shai)ed  stone  sepulcliers, 


Burial  Mounds. 


71 


irs. 


These   appear  to  liave   bci-n   constructcil   as   follows  : 
III  a  pit  som(>  two  or  tlire(^  ivvt  deep  and  of  the  <h'i^ir«(i 
dimensions,  dug  for  tlie  pui'pose,  a  miniherof  ilat  >*t<»nes 
ar(V])hiced  to  form  the  'loor  ;   next.  siiiiil;tr  j>ifcf>.s  are 
set  on   edge   to  form   tht    sidt-.s   and  ♦■jkIs,  over  vhieh 
otlier  hlahs   an^  hud   Ihit,   forming  flw  co.\«'ring;  i!ih- 
wlioh',    when    linished,    nuising    a   rtilo,    J)ox-sl«»f>*-d 
eoliin   or  sarcophagus.      Souetiines  .ij*   bottom  ivy*^ 
was    omitted.     (Iravi  s      r    tliiri    kind  -M.'cijr  ofi*si  im 
g:'eat  nuinl)ers  in  southt—n  Ifiinois,  K*iatiickv,  rmMte 
and    cast    Tennessee^    no-ili-e:»!*t»'rft   ^i»-t»rgia,   ani<ii  it 
eci'taiti  ])()ints  in  Oliio,  tlioiigh  the  scetion-M  of  great'*-? 
abundance    are    soutlicrn    Jllinoi,^    and    middle   Ten- 
iicss(M\       Mounds    in    tliesc     last-named    sections    a-'t^ 
fi'cciucntly  made   up   almost   entii-cly  of  srpulclu'rs  of 
this   type,  generally  placed  without   regard  to  system 
and   sometinn^s   in   two  or  more  tiers.     On*-  or  two. 
however,   have   b(>en    found   in   middl(>   Tennes«rt'e.    in 
which  the  graves  were   arranged  like   th(^  spok*'*  «»f  a 
wheel,   the  heads   being   toward   the   center.     In   t' «s 
center  of  the  mound,  th(^  ])oint   from  which   tli<»'   »    ^- 
copliagi   radiated,   was    a    large    clay  vase    or   l> '-iii- 
sliaped  vesscd.     There  were  two  rows  of  cofiins,  tt-tw 
outside  of  the  othtM*.     Although  the  skeleton  i«  ii-tiallir 
stretched  at   full  length   on  the  back,  in  some    c»*('H 
the   bones  of   ailults  have  been  disarticulated  U-fore 
biu'ial,  and  packi'd  into  stone  graves  of  tliis  typo   '.ot 
exce(>ding  two  feet  in  length  and  nine  inches  in  width  ; 
and   occasionally   two   and    ev<Mi   three  skeletons    ar(! 
foiuul  in   a  single   grave.      A  cemetery  in  Tennessee 
composed  chieliy  of  small  graves  of  this  type  was,  ior 
a  time,  suppos(>d  to  bo  the  burial-j)]ace  of  ii  race  of 
])igmies,   but  a  more  tliorough   examination    showed 


72 


Sliulif  of  Niii'lJi  Aiiicrifdii  Arcli(i<i)l(Kji/. 


the  graves  to  ho  tht>  depositories  of  (lisarticuhit(>(l 
slcelctons  and  chikli'eii.  Tliere  is  usually  no  special 
orde"  in  wliicli  these  graves  arc  arrunged  ;  a  cemet(M"v 
exhihiting  tlie  greatest,  regularity  of  any  yet  dis- 
covered is  shown  in  Fig.  22.     It  is  proper,  liowever, 


?'    T 


iu..ti:..u;;./Jilu:.!  ^ 


y 


1^ 


':.'« 


--3Q      _    -^ . 


'■■Mi: 


''I: 


tosses 


'■Vj'.LV''/; 


-y 


■.'I'.'il 
\ 
I 


;i;u^>' 


^'iWA 


I- 


c 


CI 


to  romaik  ihat  snnio  of  the  burials  of  this  type  in 
souihern  Illinois  ai)pear  beyond  any  reaponablo  doubt 
to  liave  l)een  made  by  Indians  aft(M'  the  advent  of  tln^ 
whites      A  Kaskaskia  Indian  is  known  to  have   been 


Buri(tl  Mounds. 


burit'fl  in  this  kind  of  ;i  ^ravc  in  Jackson  county,  Illi- 
nois, in  tho  oarly  ))art  of  the  present  century. 

Mounds  are  often  found  to  cover  vaults  of  wood  or 
stone.  In  soino  instances  these  vaults  are  square, 
obloni;,  or  circular  inclosures,  built  up  to  the  height 
of  two  or  three  feet,  of  unhewn  stone,  laid  without 
th(!  use  of  mortar.  Occasionally  they  seem  to  luive 
becMi  covered  with  timl)ei's,  but  more  frequently  tliev 
liave  been  simply  filled  with  earth  aftei"  the  l)odies 
were  deposited  within  tjiem.  Dome-shaped  stone 
vaults  also  occur.  In  most  cases,  however,  these 
have  j)artly  fallen  in,  hence  the'  i-estorations  may  not 
be  strictly  correct.  Wooden  vaults  or  chambers  of 
two  types  liave  been  discovei'ed  in  Ohio  and  West 
Viri^inia,  On(  of  these  is  a  simple  \)vn,  usually 
square,  l)uilt  of  round  logs  ;  the  other  of  logs  placed 
upright  aroiuid  the  inclosed  space.  In  two  or  thi-ee 
instances,  two  vaults,  one  above  the  other,  wei'e  made 
in  the  same  moiuid.  These  are  spoken  of  as  vaults, 
yi't  it  is  ])ossibl(>  that,  in  som(>  instances,  they  nuiy  have 
l)een  built  for  some  other  purposes  than  that  of  a  tomb 
or  burial-i)lace. 

Stone  graves  and  vaults  are  seldom  found  in  tlie 
mounds  of  tlu'  Oulf  States.  Usually  the  skeletons  in 
this  section  are  in  a  horizontal  position,  generally 
without  any  rule  in  regard  to  direction.  Exceptional 
cases  occur  in  which  all  the  l)odies  in  a  mound,  or 
most  of  them,  ar(>  ])laced  with  the  head  in  one  direc- 
tion or  arranged  in  a  circle  with  heads  toward  the 
center.  A  few  instances  have  been  noticed  in  southern 
(leoriiia  where  the  bodv  had  been  buried  in  a  sitting 
jxtsture,  a   j)ost   having  been  driven   into   tlie   ground 


anc 


I    the 


(i< 


a<l   lashed    to   it   with    the    l)ack    ajjainst   it. 


74 


Study  of  Noii'i  Ainerican  Archaeology. 


In  soiie  df  tlu>  Arkansas  rri-oups.  ninny  of  tlie  skolo- 
tous  iKvve  Ik'OH  ft»uml  "loscly  folded,  tliougli  seldom 
in  a  sitting  posture.  T'  appears  from  llio  evidence 
obtained  i)y  tlie  e\'))loration  of  many  of  the  low, 
conical  mounds  of  the  latter  section  that  usually  these 
were  ,it  first  hut  liouse-sites,  liut  death  occuri-ingin  the 
family,  the  dead  were  buried  in  th  -  floor,  the  liouse 
burned  over  tluMii,  and  dirt  heap(>d  ovi'r  the  smolder- 
ing ruins.  Sometimes  the  same  mound  was  u..ed 
again  as  a  dwelling  site  and  burial-place. 

Burial  in  <  ^siuiries.  or  ''bone-i)its,"''  was  a  common 
mode  in  some  i)arts  of  Canada,  and  not  unknown 
south  of  the  lakes.  It  is  supposeU  that,  in  some  in- 
stances at  least,  tlieso  are  the  i)laces  of  communal 
liurial,  made  at  the  '•Great  Feast  of  the  Dead,"  when 
the  bones  of  those  belonging  to  the  tribe,  village  or 
band,  who  had  died  during  the  previous  ien  or  twelve 
years,  weri^  depositcnl  in  a  pit  dug  for  this  purpose. 
Some  of  these  contain  as  many  as  a  thousand  skele- 
tons, and  according  to  the  Report  of  the  Canadian 
Institute  a  number  of  thera  are  known  to  l)e  of  "post- 
European  date."  as  copper  and  brass  kettles  have 
been  found  in  them. 

That  inhumation  was  the  usual  method  of  finally 
disposing  (tf  the  dead  in  this  division,  is  indicated 
by  what  has  already  been  mentioned,  and  ii  some- 
what careful  study  of  all  the  data  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  it  was  almost  the  only  method  adopted  by 
the  ancient  inhabitants.  It  is  true,  that  coals  and 
ashes  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  burial  mounds, 
and  that  partially  burnt  human  bones  are  occasion- 
ally fouiid,  giving  ris(>,  in  the  minds  of  many  archae- 
ologists,   to    the    opini  tn    that    cremation    was    often 


Btwial  Moinnls. 


/o 


"d 


n 


practiced  l)v  tlic  iiiound-huiklors,  and  that  hutman 
i?acrific(Mvas  not  intnuiuciit .  It  is  ])rul)al)lc,  howover, 
that  tlicsc  indications  arc  due  to  other  and  (luitc  ilif- 
fcivnt  cust(>rns,  tliongli  it  must  he  admitted  that  a  few- 
instances  liavo  boon  noticed  wh(M'e  it  -icms  evident 
the  bodies  were  inteittionally  burned,  but  these  are 
extremely  rare. 

That  lire  was  very  t'i'e(|uently  us(mI  in  connection 
witli,  or  as  })art  of  tlie  burial  ceremonies,  is  certainly 
true,  but  the  evidence,  when  cai'efully  studied,  tends 
to  show  that  tlie  burninj^  of  the  bodies  or  bones,  where 
this  has  occurred,  was,  with  few  exc(>i)tions,  accidental 
rather  than  int(>ntional.  In  Arkansas,  where  the  exca- 
vations sliow  that  the  liouse  was  burned  over  the  dead, 
the  boilies  were,  in  nearly  every  case,  covered  with  suffi- 
cient earth  to  protect  them  fi'om  the  fire.  In  Wisconsin 
and  nortluM'n  Illinois  it  was  not  an  luicommon  cus- 
tom to  cover  the  primary  burial  with  a  layer  of  clay 
or  mortar-like  material,  and  then  burn  brush  or  other 
material  on  it  Ix'foro  completing  the  mound.  Evi- 
dences of  a  similar  nuuhod  were  also  ol)served  in 
some  mounds  of  eastern  TiMinessee.  Evidenc(>s  of 
fires  hiirned  over  vaults  have  been  observed  in  Ohio, 
West  Virginia  and  North  Cai'olina.  In  several  in- 
stances, from  want  of  proper  care  in  forming  the  cov- 
ering, or  on  account  of  the  fierceni  ss  of  the  fires,  the 
bones  have  been  scorched,  or  pai'tially  burned,  render- 
ing it  highly  probable  that  the  flesh  had,  in  these 
cases,  been  removed  Ix'fore  burial.  From  the  fact 
that  in  one  of  the  mounds  of  eastern  Tennt^ssee  burnt 
clay  beds  were  found  covered  with  ashes  and  coals,  in 
which  were  brriit  human  bones,  and  in  thi^  center  of 
each   the   charred   remains   of  a   stake,  it  is   inferred 


ti\ 


Shnhj  of  North  Ani<ri<<iii  Airha> uloi/i/. 


that  captives  woro  tnrturod  and  burnt  lioro.  Tlio 
statement  hv  Haywood  iti  l\is  "History  of  Tenuess(>i'" 
aiul  Kaiusey  in  his  "Annals  of  Tennessee,"  that  a 
Mrs.  Bean,  who  was  captured  l)y  the  Cherokocs,  was 
taken  to  a  mound  in  tht>  sain(>  h)eality  as  that  men- 
tioned above,  to  be  burnt,  thou<;;h  saved  by  one  of 
the  Indian  women,  not  only  strengthens  this  supposi- 
tion, but  indicates  some  relation  between  the  (-liero- 
kees  and  the  builders  of  these  mounds,  or  the  use  of 
them  l)y  the  Indians  for  at  least  one  jnirpose  for 
which  they  were  used  by  the  builders.  It  is  possible, 
however,  though  not  probable,  that  these  may  liave 
been  instances  of  burial  of  the  kind  mention(>d  by 
Col.  C.  C.  Jones  ("History  of  the  Southern  In- 
dians") as  occurring  in  some  Georgia  mounds,  where 
the  body  was  placed  in  a  sitting  pof^ition  and  strapped 
to  a  stake.  A  burial  of  this  kind,  which  occurred  in 
Arkansas  as  late  as  1834,  is  described  by  Mr.  Poynter 
in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1882.  The  house  in 
which  the  family  of  this  Indian  (Wal-ka-ma-tu-ba) 
lived  was  Iniilt  of  round  logs,  covered  witli  bark  and 
daubed  with  mud.  In  the  middle  of  the  house  a 
board  was  driven  about  three  feet  into  the  ground, 
and  the  old  man  was  lashed  to  this  with  thongs,  in  a 
sitting  posture,  with  his  knees  drawn  up  in  front  of 
his  chin,  and  his  hands  crossed  and  fastened  under 
his  knees.  The  body  was  then  entirely  encased  in 
mud,  built  up  like  around  mound  and  smoothed  over. 
A  fire  was  kindled  over  the  pile  and  the  clay  burnt 
to  a  crisp.  Six  montlis  later  the  family  moved  away 
and  the  mound  was  opened  and  tlie  body  found  to  l)e 
well  preserved.  This  will  probably  explain  the 
method  in  the  cases   n. .nitioned   by  (Jol.  Jones;  and 


Burial  Moitndn. 


77 


will  also  j^ive  a  liiiit  as  to  the  custom  wliicli  producod 
the  burnt  clay  beds  so  often  found  covering  i)urials, 
but  not  the  dish-shaped  beds  in  the  mounds  on  the 
Little  Tennessee,  whei'e  more  likely  torture  by  tire 
was  practiced. 

A  somewhat  ])eculiar  custom  prevailed  among  the 
Tiiound-builders  of  north-eastern  Missouri,  which,  if 
rightly  interpreted  by  the  explorers,  leads  to  the  sup- 
position that  in  some  cases  the  body  of  the  dead  was 
intentionally  burned.  The  mounds  are  composed 
wholly  of  earth,  partly  of  earth  and  partly  of  stones, 
or  wholly  of  stones.  In  the  two  latter,  the  bodies 
buried  in  them  are  covered  with  stones,  or  are  in- 
closed in  stone  receptacles  of  various  forms.  In  a 
few  cases,  these  receptacles  are  box-shaped  cysts,  simi- 
lar to  those  heretofore  mentioned.  The  condition  of 
the  other  mounds  indicates  that  the  builders  had 
burned  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  then  gathered  up  the 
charred  bones  and  ashes  and  mixed  them  into  a  mass 
with  clay.  Where  the  bodies  were  buried  without 
being  thus  treated,  a  flat  stone  was  sometimes  laid  on 
the  head. 

There  are  other  mounds  which  may  be  included  in 
the  biu'ial  class,  though  it  is  not  apparent  that  they 
were,  at  least  in  many  cases,  erected  for  this  purpose. 
One  type,  to  which  the  name  "altar  mound"  has  been 
applied,  is  characterizcnl  by  having,  usually  at  the 
bottom  on  the  original  surface  of  the  ground,  a  regu- 
larly-shaped nuiss  of  burned  clay,  with  a  basin-like 
depression  in  the  middle.  These  masses  are  supposed 
by  some  leading  authorities  to  have  been  "altars,"  on 
which  sacrifices  were  made  or  some  religious  act  per- 
formed.    There  is,  however,  no  valid  reason  for  this 


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78 


Study  of  North  Amerieav  Archaeology, 


supposition,  nor  nnv  ovidonco  wliicli  seems  to  justify 
it.  Although  Messrs.  Sijuier  and  Davis,  who  ad- 
vanced this  opinion,  found  no  evick'nce  of  burial  in 
the  mounds  of  this  type  which  they  excavated,  some 
of  those  subsequently  examined  by  other  explorers 
appear  to  have  been  used  as  depositories  of  the  dead. 
Mr.  Moorehead  gives  an  instance  in  his  explorations 
of  Oliio  mounds,  in  which  the  "altar"  basin  was  oc- 
cupied by  a  single  skeleton,  the  remains,  most  likely, 
of  one  who  held  some  position  of  note  among  the 
people,  who  thus  honored  him  in  his  burial.  Others 
of  the  same  type,  in  Ohio,  north-western  Illinois,  and 
West  Virginia,  have  been  used  as  burial-places, 
though  the  bodies  were  not  placed  in  the  clay  basin. 

A  f(>w  mounds  in  eastern  Iowa  and  western  North 
Carolina,  and  one  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin, 
have  been  found,  when  explored,  to  contain  oblong, 
altar-shaped  masses,  symmetrically  built  of  cobble- 
stones, some  of  which  showed  no  indications  whatever 
of  fire,  while  others  were  covered  with  a  layer  of 
charcoal  and  ashes,  in  which  were  imbedded  skeletons 
or  human  bones  bearing  no  marks  of  heat.  Some  of 
these  were  evidently  burial  mounds,  while  others  gave 
no  indications  of  having  been  used  or  intended  for 
this  purpose. 


Fe.s«e/s,  Impkinents  and  (h'naniciU.s. 


79 


CHAPTER  VIT. 


VKSSKLS,    IMPLEMENTS    AM)    ORNAMENTS. 

While,  on  the  one  hand,  the  local  monuments,  by 
their  forms,  character,  size,  condition,  topographical 
position,  etc.,  furnish  some  evidence  as  to  the  age  in 
which  the  builders  lived,  their  sedentary  habits,  mode 
of  life,  the  relative  tribal  strength,  culture  status,  and 
whether  in  a  state  of  peace  or  war  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  chiefly  from  the  modes  of  burial  and  the  minor 
products  of  art  we  are  enabled  to  judge  of  their  do- 
mestic life  and  customs,  and  to  gain  some  knowledge 
of  their  superstitions  and  religious  beliefs.  Notice  of 
a  few  of  these  minor  vestiges  of  art  has  been  given 
in  connection  with  the  description  of  the  burial 
mounds  and  modes  of  burial,  but  it  is  necessary,  be- 
fore dismissing  the  subject,  to  devote  a  chapter  to 
their  consideration. 

The  first  step  in  the  study  of  these  art  products  is 
to  learn  their  history  from  the  moment  they  were 
brought  to  light  until  they  fall  into  the  student's 
liands ;  in  other  words,  to  know  positively  that  they 
are  genuine  mound  relics,  for  it  is  hazardous  to  build 
up  a  theory  on  an  unauthcnticated  specimen,  espe- 
cially when  it  presents  unusual  features.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  lack  of  knowledge  in  this  respect  in 
regard  to  many  of  the  articles,  even  in  the  best 
archaeological  collections  of  our  country,  has  mate- 
rially lessened  their  value  in  the  eyes  of  critical  stu- 
dents and    specialists.     However,   the    collections    of 


80 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


recent  years  liave  been  made  with  more  care  and  dis- 
crimination, and  more  care  has  been  taken  to  see  that 
the  records  are  correct. 

As  the  relation  of  the  articles  found  in  a  mound  to 
the  bodies  deposited  therein  is  of  more  or  less  impor- 
tance in  this  study,  a  few  examples  will  be  given, 
taken  chiefly  from  those  with  which  the  author  is  per- 
sonally familiar — selecting,  of  course,  those  which 
appear  to  be  of  most  importance  in  this  respect. 


Fig.  23.    Trian^'ular  pit,  North  Carolina. 

Tlie  first  we  notice  is  a  triangular  i)it  in  Caldwell 
county,  North  Carolina,  probably  the  only  example 
of  a  regular  triangular  form  which  has  been  observed. 
An  outline  sketch,  showing  the  relative  positions  of 
the  skeletons  is  given  in  Fig.  23.  Nos.  1-9,  single 
iininclosed  skeletons,  lying  horizontally  on  their 
backs,  heads  east  or  north-east ;   10-15,  stone  vaults, 


Veiit<els,  Implements  and  Ornametitu 


81 


iple 
red . 
of 
igle 
leir 
Its, 


similar  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  20,  covering  skeletons, 
each,  except  11  and  14,  containing  a  single  skeleton 
in  a  sitting  posture  and  unaccompanied  by  any  article. 
Nos.  11  and  14  were  covered  graves,  each  containing 
two  horizontal  skeletons,  one  lying  on  the  other ; 
heavy  stones  were  laid  on  the  legs  and  extended  arms  ; 
no  accompanying  articles.  By  the  head  of  No.  2  of 
the  uninclosed  skeletons  was  a  broken  soai)stone  pipe  ; 
Nos.  5  and  9,  one  small  polished  celt  each. 

At  A  were  ten  or  more  skeletons  (there  were  ten 
skulls)  in  a  group,  which  appeared  to  have  been 
buried  at  one  time.  The  principal  personage  lay  in 
the  midst  of  the  group,  stretched  horizontally  on  the 
ground,  face  down,  head  north-east.  Under  liis  head 
was  a  large  engraved  shell,  similar  to  that  shown  in 
Fig.  18 ;  around  his  n(>ck  a  number  of  large  shell 
beads ;  at  tlie  sides  of  liis  head  five  elongate  copi^er 
beads,  or  rather  small  cylinders,  part  of  tlie  leather 
thong  on  which  they  had  JK-en  strung  yet  remaining  in 
them.  A  piece  of  copper  lay  under  his  l)reast ;  around 
each  wrist  were  the  remains  of  a  bracelet  composed 
of  copper  and  shell  beads  alternating ;  at  his  right 
hand  lay  four  iron  implements,  one  a  roughly-ham- 
mered celt ;  another,  part  of  a  bhide  ;  another,  part 
of  a  punch  or  awl,  with  deer-horn  handle.  Under 
his  left  hand  was  another  engraved  shell,  the  concave 
surface  upward  and  filled  with  shell  beads  of  various 
sizes. 

Around  and  partly  lying  ov(>r  this  skeleton  were 
nine  others.  Under  the  heads  of  two  of  these,  lying 
within  a  foot  of  the  head  of  the  fii'st,  were  several 
engraved  shells  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  18.     Scat- 


82 


Study  of  Xurth  Ameriniii  Arrliacolngy. 


tered  ovor  aiul  among  tin*  bones  of  tliOHd  tvn  skeletons 
were  some  twenty-five  or  thirty  polished  celts,  a  num- 
ber of  discoidal  stones,  a  few  copper  arrow-points, 
some  pieces  of  mica,  linnps  of  paint  and  graphite, 
fvnd  more  than  a  dozen  soapstone  pipes. 

Thus  it  will  bo  seen  that  the  contents  of  this  single 
depository  of  tlie  dead,  of  which  the  al)ovo  is  only  a 
brief  and  partial  account,  no;  only  give  us  valuable 
hints  as  to  the  arts  and  customs  of  the  people,  but 
furnish  a  basis  for  numerous  conjectures. 

The  fact  that  there  was  no  mound  over  the  pit,  the 
top  being  nearly  or  quite  on  a  level  with  the  natural 
surface,  and  that  the  entire  depth  to  the  bottom  did 
not  exceed  three  feet,  excludes  the  idea  of  any  very 
great  age.  The  annual  decay  of  vegetation  for  two 
or  three  thousand  years,  or  even  for  half  a  score  of 
centuries,  would,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  in  a 
forest-covered  region  as  this  was,  have  covered  the 
area  with  mold  to  the  depth  of  two  or  tliree  feet ;  yet 
it  is  evident  that  tlie  accumulation  here  must  have 
been  less  than  one  foot  thick,  as  the  bottom  of  the  pit 
was  in  some  places  not  more  than  two  feet  and  a  half 
below  the  original  surface.  It  nuiy  be  said  that  the 
same  statement  is  equally  applicable  to  many  other 
ancient  works  of  our  country.  This  is  true,  but  it 
only  serves  to  raise  the  question,  what  is  the  inference 
to  be  drawn  therefrom?  If  wo  assume,  as  the  author 
believes  to  be  the  correct  theory,  that  the  builders 
were  Indians,  and  in  all  probability  Cherokees,  who 
inhabited  this  region  from  tlie  earliest  knowledge  we 
have  of  it,  the  difficulty  in  this  respect  vanishes,  and 
conjectures  are  limited  to  a  much  narrower  field  than 
otherwise.     But  aside  from  any  theory  in  this  respect, 


]'c'.sw/.s',  Tniplcmcnfx  and  Ornaments. 


83 


the  indications  arc  decidedly  against  any  very  great 
age.  The  stone  implements  are  of  the  neolithic  type  ; 
the  engraved  shell  gorgets,  on  which  the  figure  is  tlie 
conventionalized  serpent,  found  in  graves  and  mounds 
not  only  of  this  region  but  also  of  eastern  and  mid- 
dle Tennessee,  possibly  refer  to  a  cult  or  superstition 
widely  diffused  among  tlie  aborigines  of  America. 
The  presence  of  iron  implements,  which  analysis  has 
shown  were  not  made  of  meteoric  iron,  indicates  con- 
tact, direct  or  indirect,  with  a  people  who  had  learned 
the  use  of  this  metal.  The  assumption  that  this  was 
a  comparatively  modern  burial-place,  and  not  one 
pei'taining  to  the  true  mound-builders,  only  serves  to 
introduce  an  equally  troublesome  difficulty  on  the 
other  hand.  The  carved  shells  have  been  found  in  so 
many  mounds  and  stone  graves  that  they  are  recog- 
nized by  all  archaeologists  as  genuine  mound-builder 
relics. 

Whatever  may  be  the  conclusion  reached  on  these 
points,  the  surmise  to  which  the  group  of  ten  skele- 
tons gives  rise  is  not  affected  thereby.  That  the 
central  figure  had  been  a  person  of  importance  among 
his  people  is  apparent  from  the  ornaments  with  which 
he  was  decked  and  the  manner  in  which  he  was  sur- 
rounded by  other  bodies.  Had  they  been  slain  to  ac- 
company him  into  the  unseen  land?  This  would,  per- 
liaps,  be  a  reasonable  conclusion  if  we  could  be  assured 
that  these  were  not  skeletons  taken  from  some  house  of 
the  dead  or  other  burial-place.  Adair  mentions  an 
instance  where,  on  the  death  of  a  chief's  son,  captive 
women  were  slain  to  accompany  him. 

Mr.  Moorehead  mentions  an  instance  ("Primitive 
Man   in    Ohio")    where    the   following    articles  were 


!"••— 


84 


Studij  (if  North  American  Archaeology. 


'.*«• 


found  about  a  single  skeleton  :  I^pon  the  ground  at 
its  feet  a  copper  plate  covered  with  the  remains  of 
cloth  ;  about  the  head  and  neck  six  hundred  and  six 
pearl  beads,  all  drilled  ;  among  the  vertebrae  eight 
perforated  bear  teeth  and  three  spool-shaped  orna- 
ments ;  and  between  the  legs  twenty  shell  beads. 

As  an  illustration  of  a  more  general  distribution  of 
articles  among  the  skeletons,  the  following  summary 
of  the  account  in  the  Twelth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  of  the  burials  in  an  east 
Tennessee  mound  is  given.  The  relative  positions  of 
the  skeletons  are  shown  in  Fig.  24,  the  depth  at  which 
they  lay  from  the  upper  surface  varying  from  two  and 
a  half  to  eight  feet.  Length  of  the  mound,  220  feet ; 
greatest  width,  184  feet ;  and  height,  14  feet.  The 
articles  found  with  the  respective  skeletons  as  num- 
bered in  the  cut  were  as  follows  : 

With  Nos.  4  and  10,  each,  two  broken  pots  ;  Nos.  5, 
0,  9,  13,  17  and  51,  each,  one  broken  pot ;  No.  16,  one 
polished  discoidal  stone,  one  soapstone  pipe,  one 
broken  pot,  one  rough  discoidal  stone,  and  one  en- 
graved shell ;  No.  18,  two  polished  celts,  five  arrow- 
heads and  some  flint  nodules  ;  No.  21,  one  unbroken 
pot  and  polished  celt ;  No.  22,  one  polished  celt ;  No. 
26,  one  pot  and  two  polished  celts;  No.  31,  one 
broken  pot  and  one  polished  celt ;  No.  33,  one 
engraved  shell  and  polished  celt ;  No.  34,  two 
broken  pots,  one  polished  stone  chisel,  one  discoidal 
stone  and  one  stone  gorget ;  No.  35,  two  polished  celts  ; 
No.  39,  one  polished  celt ;  No.  41,  one  engraved  shell ; 
No.  44,  four  polished  celts ;  No.  46,  one  broken  pot 
and  one  discoidal  stone ;  No.  55,  one  polished  celt ; 
No.   57,  one  bowl,  one  shell  mask,   two   shell  pins, 


fV.s;,r/.s',  r„iple,„c>,(s  mid  Ornaments.  85 

two  bone   awls  or  puncbes,  and  a  number  of  sl.ell 
»  -u  s  :  No.  58,  three  bone  implements  ;  No.  59    tw!I 
«hell  gorgets,  one  engraved  shell,  one  shell  ornan'ient 
one  shell  pin,  one  bear  tooth  and  one  discoidal  stone  • 


No.  G2    a  lump  of  red  paint,  a  number  of  shell  beads 
four  shell  pins,  one  bear  tooth,  one  discoidal  stone 
and  one  ornamented  pot ;  No.  63,  one  broken  vessel 


^"•m^ 


cSG 


Study  of  yorth  American  ArchavoJoijy 


rig.  25.  Copper 
hawk's-bell,  east 
Tenuessee. 


with  animal  hoad ;  No.  66,  (child)  one  moccasin- 
shaped  pot,  four  copper  hawks '-bells  or  rattles  (Fig. 
2.")) ,  and  a  number  ot  shell  beads  ;  No.  68,  three  shell 
pins  and  one  ornamented  pot ;  No, 
71,  four  shell  pins,  a  number  of 
shell  beads,  ornamented  bowl  and 
lump  of  red  paint ;  No.  79  (child) , 
one  shell  mask  or  gorget,  one  en- 
graved shell,  a  number  of  sliell 
beads  and  two  shell  pins;  No.  81, 
two  ornamented  pots,  two  sliell 
pins,  a  number  of  shell  beads  and  a 
lump  of  red  paint;  No.  89  (child), 
one  pot,  one  engraved  shell,  thirteen 
shell  pins,  one  plain  shell  gorget  and  eight  hundred 
and  forty-six  shell  beads  ;  No.  90,  one  bone  needle. 

As  we  find  no  skeleton  in  this  mound  accompanied 
by  a  much  greater  number  of  articles  than  the  others, 
it  may  be  a  fair  inference  that  no  chief  or  person  of 
pre-eminent  importance  in  the  tribe  w^as  buried  here. 
It  is  also  interesting  to  observe  the  evidence  of  affec- 
tion for  the  children  shown  by  the  numbet*  of  articles 
buried  wnth  them. 

These  samples,  which,  of  course,  are  mounds  un- 
usally  rich  in  relics  and  remains,  and  can  not  be 
taken  as  types  of  burial  mounds  in  general,  will  serve 
to  show  the  relation  of  relics  to  the  skeletons. 

Referring  now  to  the  types  and  forms  of  the  vessels, 
implements,  ornaments  and  other  products  of  the 
mound-builders'  art,  attention  will  be  called  at  the 
same  time  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  some  of 
the  more  important  of  these.  It  is  chiefly  by  the 
range  of  the  leading  types  of  art  that  the  minor  cult- 


]^essds,  Implements  and  Ornaments 


87 


ure  areas  can  bo  outlinod.  But  it  is  necessary  ihat 
we  should  boar  in  mind  tliat  tlioso  linos  may  vary 
widely  from  tlio  ethnic  linos,  or  lines  -which  mark  the 
boundaries  of  tribes  or  peoples.  And  this  is  un- 
doubtedly true  in  regard  to  some  of  tho  leading  types 
of  tho  minor  products  of  tho  mound-builders'  art.  It 
is  found  in  tho  range  of  some  types  of  pottery,  and 
also  in  the  range  of  the  carved  o."  ornamented  shells 
which  have  already  been  incidentally  mentioned. 


Pottery. 

Although  the  potter's  wheel  was  a  contrivance  un- 
known to  aboriginal  America,  the  art  of  manufactur- 
ing pottery  was  not  only  known  to  the  more  advanced 
people  of  Central  and  South  America,  but  was  under- 
stood and  practiced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the 
prehistoric  tribes  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  mound- 
builders'  section.  Plowever,  the  area  where  the  art 
was  chiefly  developed  is  that  named  by  Mr.  W.  H. 
Holmes,  the  chief  authority  on  ancient  American  pot- 
tery, "Tho  Middle  Mississippi  Province,"  embracing 
Arkansas,  south-eastern  Missouri,  southern  Illinois, 
Tennessee,  parts  of  Kentucky,  and  the  portion  of  In- 
diana bordering  the  Wabash.  Both  north  and  south 
of  this  section  the  pottery  is  much  less  abundant ;  and 
especially  is  this  true  in  regard  to  the  regions  north- 
ward, being,  in  fact,  rare  in  some  areas.  This  division 
into  northern,  middle,  and  southern  provinces  is  not 
wholly  an  arbitrary  one,  as  it  represents  in  a  measure 
areas  of  different  types  of  the  fictile  art. 

In  Canada,  Michigan,  New  York,  and  extreme 
northern  Ohio,  substantially  tho  same  typos  as  to  ma- 
terial, form,  and  ornamentation  appear  to  have  pre- 


88 


Studji  of  XortJi  American  Archat'olorju. 


Viiilod  ;  howovor,  somo  sections  of  the  area  mentioned 
are  not  represented  by  a  sufficient  number  of  speci- 
mens to  afford  an  entirely  satisfactory  comparison. 
Tlio  method  of  preparing  the  paste  in  this  northern 
province  appears  to  have  been  somewliat  different 
from  that  followed  in  the  southern  and  middle  prov- 
inces. While  in  the  latter  it  was  customary  to  temper 
the  clay  chiefly  with  powdered  shells,  in  the  nortli, 
sand,  or,  as  Mr.  Boyle,  who  has  studied  the  Canadian 
pottery,  saj-s,  burnt  gneiss  or  granite,  was  used  for 
this  purpose.  Mr.  Holmes  expresses  the  opinion  that 
the  northern  pottery  was  molded  in  hollows  of  suita- 
ble size  formed   in    sandy  soil.     Fig.  26   shows  one 

typo  of  the  clay 
vessels  of  this  re- 
gion. Some,  at 
least,  of  the  ves- 
sels found  in  Iowa 
and  northern  Illi- 
nois appear  to  be- 
long to  the  same 
general  class.  The 
walls  are  gener- 
ally thick,  and  the 
Fig.  26.    Clay  vessel,  Canada.  „        .        -   . , 

'  margin  of  the  run 

usually  squared  off,  showing  the  full  thickness.  The 
clay  pots  of  Ontario  are  always  round-bottomed  ;  there 
are,  however,  occasional  exceptions  to  this  rule  found 
in  other  parts  of  this  northern  province. 

The  middle  province  was  pre-eminently  the  pottery 
manufacturing  region  of  the  mound-buiiders,  espe- 
cially that  portion  embraced  in  eastern  Arkansas, 
south-eastern  Missouri,  and  middle  Tennessee.     These 


TV.s,s^As',  Implrvu'iitu  and  Ornaments. 


89 


nil 


are  chissod  under  the  followinj;  compreliensive  tv])es  ; 
bowls,  pot-shaped  vessels,  wide-inouthed  bottles  or 
jars,  and  high-necked  bottles.  The  moditieation  of 
these  primary  forms  by  the  introduction  of  fanciful 
features  given  to  the  rim,  neck  or  body  is  almost  in- 
finite, a  few  only  of  Avhich  cai\  bo  represented  here. 

The  bowls  vary  in  si/e  from  the  little  toy  vessel  an 
inch  in  diameter  and  depth  to  fully  twenty  inches 
across  the  top,  and  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  depth. 
The  form  of  the  body  varies,  so  far  as  the  opening 
and  flare  is  concerned,  from  the  saucer  shape,  or  chop- 
ping-bowl  form,  to  the  globe  with  narrow  opening. 
The  fanciful  shapes  are  made  to  represent,  rudely,  va- 
ru)us  animals,  protuberances  from  the  sides,  or  addi- 
tions to  the  rims  forming  the  head  and  tail ;  nor  is  the 
human  form  entirely  omitted,  as  a  head  is  occasionally 
seen  on  the  rim.  A  few  of  these  are  rej^resented  in 
outline  in  Fig.  27,  and  some  with  shading  and  orna- 
mentation in  Figs.  IG,  28,  29,  30, 

^  o  D  ^  O  O 

Fig.  27.     Outline  figures  of  bowls. 


lis. 


tse 


Fig.  28.    Oruamcntccl  bowl,  Tennessee. 


90  Study  of  Xorth  American  Arcliaeoluyy. 


Fig.  29.     Animal-shaped  bowl,  Vrkiinsas. 


Fij;.  30.     15inl-sliapiMl  bowl,  Arkansas. 


rr.s'.sv/.s,  Jiiiphiiinils  (lull  Onianicut.s. 


91 


The  Pot-fihapnl  I'r,y,sr/.s. — Alilioug'li  coiisiderod  liero  us 
a  class,  vessels  of  tins  ty])o 
arc  chiefly  transitional  forms 
between  tlio  globular  bowls 
and  wide-mouthed  bottles. 
However,  the  frequ(Mit  pres- 
ence of  ears,  and  certain  other 
features,  are  so  suggestive  of 
the  cooking  ])ot  that  the  name 
seems  appropriate.  They  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  furnished  I'im'-"!-  Pot-shaped  vessel, 
with    fanciful    additions,     or  Arkansas, 

marked  with  erratic  figures,  and  the  ornamentation  is 


^ 


Fi^;.  ,')L!.     I'ot-Kliapi'il  vessel,  west  Teimcssce 


92 


Stndij  of  North  American.  Archaeolog;/. 


slight  niul  con  fined  chiefly  to  tho  noclv.     Some  exam- 
ples bear  a  close   resemblance  to  northern  vessels  of 
the  same  class.     Two  are  shown  in  Figs.  31  and  32. 
The  Wide-riioutlied  Bottler. — Vessels  of  this  class  vary 

in  form  from  the  glob- 

C^^^)''^^r^^^/^'^\r^^^^    ular-shaped    bowl,    or 

^ —^  ^'^-^^^— ^^—-^S^    olla  to  the  true  bottle 

Fig.  33.    v'ide-mouthedbottlos.        slvjpo.       The    typical 

forms  of  the  body,  as  given  by  Mr.  Holmes,  are  shown 
in  Fig.  33.     The  eccentricities  are  visually  in  the  shape 


Fig.  34(f.     Upussum  vase,  .Xikaiisas. 


given  to  the  I'ody,  as  the  nock,  which  is  someiir.^^s 
merely  a  slightly  raised  rim,  is  generally  plain. 
Animal  forms  are  those  usually  adoptcul  in  these 
variations.     (Figs.  34,  a  (nid  h.) 

A  rcMTiarkable  v('ss(>l,  r('[)resenting  the  human  head, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3."),  a  type,  of  wliich  some  two  or 
three  specimens  have  been  discovered.  There  is  cer- 
taiidv  nothing  strongly  suggestive  of  the  Indian 
physiognomy  ill  eitluM*  of  tlu>se  ;  on  tlio  contrary,  tho 
features  will    jjrobably   b,-   taken    at    first  glance,   by 


Vcsnels,  Implements  and  Ornaments. 


93 


Fig.  ;!46.     .Suiifish  vase,  Arkausti 


IS. 


Fig.  35.    Bowl  rciirospntingtlie  human  head,  Arkansas. 


94 


Stii(h/  <if  Xorth  Anierican  Archacn1o<jy . 


I 


most  jHM'soMs,   for  Afrirans.     Ncvcrtlu'lcss,  tlu^  nioiv. 

we  study  thcin  the  iiinrc 
l^^Sa^'^^^^^^^   ^        (loiil)tfiil  (lo>s  lliis  coii- 


uoso    is   small   and  tlio 
nostrils    narrow.      Tlio 
FiK-  ."fi.    Wiii<;i'd  and  oroBU'il  rattU-  general    appearance    is 
simk.>  (U'sign,  Arkansas.  tilut  of  a  f(>inale.     Anin- 

tert>sting  d(>siu;n  repri  -enting  ;i  winged  and  crtvsted 
rattl(>snake  taken  fri>ni  an  Arkansas  bottle^  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3(). 

LoiKj-iuckcil  liotthn. — These  form  the  chief  feature  of 
the   pottery  t)f   tlie   ri>gion   now  luuh'r  consideration, 

duo  perhaps  in  i)art  to 
-^  ^i-^  •^'-^  ^^^^  endless  variation 
M  /  \  ^  (»f  which  tlio  typo  is 
susceptible.  Both  neck 
and  l)ody  in  this  class 
arc  nio<leled  ap- 
parently according  to 
i  n  d  i  V  i  d  u  a  1  f  a  n  c  y 
rather  than  after  conventional  forms.  Although 
animal  figures  are  not  uncommon,  the  human  form, 
especially  that  of  the  f(Mnale,  is  most  frequently  rep- 
resent(Hl.  Outliiio  r(>presentations  of  some  of  the 
simple  forms  are  given  in  Fig.  37,  and  of  some  of  the 

eccentric  forms 
in  Fig.  38.  Some 
of  these  vessels 
were  furnished 
with  feet,  either 
three  knol)-liko, 
cylindrical  or  terracc^l  f(>et,  or  a  single  solid  or  per- 


l-k 


Outline  figiiros  of  l(iii|»- 
nt'ckt'il  bottles. 


Fig.  38.     i'.ccfntric  shajx'S  in  long-nockod 
bottles. 


IV.s.srAs,  linplrmnifx  oiid  Omaniciils. 


95 


fonited  foot.     Tlui  spceinicii  sliowii  in  J'Mj^,  ',V,),  rcprc- 
sciUing  an   owl,  is  interesting,  as   tli(>   samo   pattern 


Fig.  ;>!).     Owl-shapeil  bottle,  enst  Tennessee. 

and  decoration  .^ro  found  in  Now  Mexico,  (>astern  Ar- 
kansas and  east(M'n  Tennessee. 


9G 


Studij  of  yortk  Autcrican  Archaeology. 


There  is  no  apparent  n^aHOti  wliy  we  may  not 
assume  tliat  the  maklnj^  of  ])ottery  began  in  this 
division  coeval  with  the  coninieiu'ement  of  mound- 
building.  Is  there  any  reason  to  believe  the  manu- 
facture had  been  discontinued  when  Europeans 
appeared  on  the  scene?  It  is  well  known  that  the 
Indians  of  the  (iulf  States  and  south  Atlantic  coast 
were  making  pottery  when  visited  l)y  the  early  ex- 
plorers. The  (lentlenian  of  I'jlvas,  oni^  of  tlie  chroni- 
clers of  De  Soto's  expedition,  tledares  that  the  vessels 
of  earthenware  us(>d  by  the  natives  (apparently 
alluding  to  the  region  of  eastern  Arkansas),  differed 
little  in  quality  from  the  Spanish  ware.  DuPratz, 
alluding  to  the  same  region,  says  :  "The  women  make 
l)0ts  of  an  extraordinary  size,  jai's  with  medium-sized 
openings,  bowls,  two-|)int  bottles  with  long  necks, 
pots  or  jugs  containing  l)ear"s  oil,  which  hold  as  much 
as  forty  pints,  and  liiuilly  plates  and  dishes  in  tiie 
French  fashion."  And  other  writers  speak  of  the 
Indians  of  the  south  making  pottery  down  to  compari- 
tively  modern  times.  DuPrat/  also  sp(>aks  of  tlieir 
coloi-iug  vessels  red.  Now,it  isajiparent  that  we  have 
in  these  notices  mention  of  the  same  kinds  of  vessels 
as  are  found  in  soutliern  mounds,  even  to  the  coloring, 
for  this  is  often  present  on  pottery  from  Ai'kansas  and 
south-eastern  Missouri. 

If  vessels  were  nuule  in  great  numl)ers  within  the 
historic  period  in  the  same  region  as  those  found  in 
the  mounds,  "it  is  reasonable!  to  suppose,"  as  Mr. 
Holmes  says,  "that  they  behtnged  to  the  great  group 
of  those  under  discussion.  If  ni^t,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  seek  the  cause  of  their  total  disappearance,  since, 


Vessels,  Implements  and  Or)iaments. 


9' 


as  I  luive  said,  tho  pottery  of  tliis  district,  as  sliown 
l)y  the  relics,  \s  i)ractically  a  unit." 

The  Gnlf  Provinee. — As  the  ])ottery  of  this  i)rovince 
bears  a  strong  resembUmco  in  form 
to  that  of  the  middle  section,  we 
will  notice  here  only  two  or  three 
types,  which  in  form  or  decoration 
present  different  features  from  those 
described.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  is  tho  so-called  "burial  urn," 
found  in  some  mounds  of  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina,  one  of  which  is 
shown  in  Fig  40.  Some  o"  ^hese  are 
the  largest  vessels  made  by  t]\e  Fig.  40.  Burial  um, 
mound-builders,  unless  tlie  supposed  Georgia, 

salt-pans,  of  Vihich  no  complete^ 
specimen  has  been  found,  exceed 
tliem  in  size.  Tlie  moccasin-shaped 
pot,  of  which  one  or  two  specimens 
have  been  found,  is  a  very  rare 
form.  The  vessel  shown  in  Fig.  41 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
modern  iron  pot,  being  furnished  with  four  legs, 
which  is  unusual  in  mound  pottery. 

Notwithstanding  the  frequent  mention,  in  works  re- 
lating to  prehistoric  America,  of  the  vessels  found  in 
Ohio  mounds  by  Messrs.  Squier  and  Davis,  ancient 
pottery  is  rare  in  that  state.  Mr.  Moorehead,  who 
has  done  much  exploring  in  the  state,  remarks  that 
''pottery  is  very  rare  in  the  tumuli  of  any  section  of 
Ohio;"  however,  the  area  about  Madisonville  appears 
to  be  an  exception  to  this  rule. 


Fig.  41.  Vessel  with 
four  legs,  Georgia. 


98 


Stiidi/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


nu't<. 


J',  I 

Judging  by  tlio  number  of  i)ip(>s  wliicb  have  been 
found  ii\  mounds  and  graves,  tlie  ancient  inliabitants 
of  this  division  must  have  been  sturdy  smokers. 
However,  tlio  distribution  of  tlieso  articles  is  by  no 
means  uniform,  as  they  are  comparatively  rare  in 
some  sections  and  abundant  in  others.  This  distribu- 
tion, if  thoroughly  worked  out,  even  with  the  mate- 
rials so  far  obtained,  would  furnish  valua])lo  hints  as 
to  culture  areas  and  ethnic  relations.  It  is  noticeable 
that  their  distribution  does  not  correspond  with  that 
of  the  pottery ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  usually 
more  abundant  in  the  regions  where  earthenware 
vessels  are  comparatively  rare,  and  of  less  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  great  pottery  section.  They  consti- 
tute a  marked  feature  of  the  archaeological  collections 
of  Canada  and  some  other  portions  of  the  nortiiern 
area  ;  also  of  eastern  Iowa,  northern  Illinois,  Ohio, 
and  what  may  be  termed  the  Cherokee,  or  Appalachian 
district.  They  are  rare  in  Arkansas  and  south-eastern 
Missouri ;  somewhat  more  common,  though  by  no 
means  abundant,^  in  middle  Tennessee  and  the  Gulf 
States. 

Articles  of  this  class  were  made  of  clay  or  carved 
out  of  slate,  soapstone,  marble,  or  other  stone.  The 
variety  of  forms  which  individual  fancy  has  intro- 
duced is  almost  endless,  yet  it  is  possible  that  thev 
may,  omitting  from  consideration  the  ornamentation 
and  fanciful  figures,  be  classed  in  a  general  way  under 
the  following  types  : 

The  stemless  pipe,  consisting  simply  of  a  bowl  with 
an  opening  for  the  stem.  Some  of  the  simpler  forms 
of  this  type  are  shown  in  outline  in  Fig.  42  (a,  /*,). 


]'rsNclx,  Iniplcinnth  (iiid  ( h-iiaiiititt.s. 


*.»9 


Of  llii'S(>,  a  ami  /*  .*iiv  found  almost  cxclusivi'ly  in  tlio 
Tiorthorn  section,  and  are  known  to  have;  Ix^oii  in  use 
among  tho  Indians.  Usually)  tlicy  are  sinipU'  l)()wls, 
cylindrical,  ovoid,  or  flaring  at  tho  to]),  or  curved  in 
tho  form  shown  in  a,  and  more  or  less  ornamented  ; 
others  represent  the  liuman  form,  or  animal  figure,  or 


ith 

Ims 

i)- 


Fig.  42.    Stemless  pipes. 


I'ijj.  43.     Image  pipi',  (Jcorgia. 


some  grotesque  shape.  Although  pipes  of  this  type 
are  rare  in  the  middle  and  southern  districts,  that 
shown  at  Fig.  43  appears  to  have  been  a  somewhat 
favorite  form  witli  the  (Jeorgia  mound-builders,  and 
has  also  been  found  in  middle  Tennessee. 

There  is  another  stemless  type,  which,  though  of 
rare  occurrence,  should  not  be  omitted  from  this  brief 
summary.  Specimens  have  been  found,  so  far  as 
known,  only  in  Arkansas,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi. 
They  are  of  largo  size,  varying  from  three  to  five 
inches  in  length,  and  from  two  to  four  in  height. 
These  usually  represent  a  crouching,  panther-liki;  ani- 
mal, or  a  man  in  the  same  position  (Fig.  44).  It  is 
possible  they  were  only  used  as  ceremonial  objects, 
and  hence  considered  public  pi-operty.     If  this  were 


100  Stiidi/  (if  Xorlli,  AiiK  rifdii  ArrlniiitliKji/. 


I 


.«f*«-«i»V 


''^igihiiiiii^iiiBt'  .mmm^xmim^-^ 


Fig.  44.     Image  pipe,  Arkansas. 


Fig.  45.     Sluirt-necked  pipes. 


]'<'nmls,   1  infill  itiintx   itiiil  ( )rnitiiii  nts. 


101 


H<»,  it  is  not  likoly  tlicv  wmild  liavr  hooii  biii'icd  cxcojjt 
on  some  uiuismil  and  iiummoi'jiIjIo  occasion.  They  arc 
curved  out  of  stone. 

Another  type  oi"  class  is  tlie  sliori-necked  ])il)e. 
The  primary  or  typical  forms  are  seen  in  the  li^iir(> 
(Fig.  45,  0,  h,  <\).  These  appear  to  pres(>nt  three  va- 
riiMies  :  the  iipri^lit  s(piare  bowl,  the  iiprij^ht  round, 
nnd  the  slanting  howl.  The  eccentric  forms  of  this 
type  are  not  numerous,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  modili- 
cation  of  the  bowl  to  repres(>nt  a  luiman  or  animal 
li(>ad.     They  are  foiuid  both  of  stone  and  clay. 

A  fourth  type  is  the  so-call(>d  "monitor  pipe." 
in  which  tlu^  jx'culiar  feature  is  the  broad,  fiat,  and 
usually  slightly  curved  ])ase  or  stem,  which  projects 
beyond  the  bowl  generally  to  an  extent  e(iual  to  the 
l)erforated  end  (Fig. 
40).  They  are  va- 
ried indefinitely  by 
the  addition  of  ani- 
mal   and    otlier    fea- 

tures,  modifi-  ^^^^^^M^Bi^^^^^^^  ^ 

tions  l)eing  confined 
chieHy  to  the  bowl. 
Tlio  typical  forms  are  confined  chiefly  to  Ohio  and  the 
region  of  eastern  Iowa  and  the  adjoining  portion  of 
Illinois.  A  slightly  modified  form  has  been  found  in 
Canada,  New  York,  Massachusetts,  West  Virginia, 
and  middle  Tennessee.  They  are  found  only  of  stone, 
usually  slate  or  steatite. 

The  long  stem  pipe,  or  rather  pipe  with  a  distinct 
stem,  forms  a  fifth  type.  This  type  has  been  found  very 
rarely,  except  in  the  northern  and  Appalachian  dis- 
tricts ;  and  the  forms  in  these  two  sections  are  quite 


Fig.  4fi.     Monitor  pipe. 


102 


Study  of  Xo rill  Ainn'icdii  Airli(Uolo(/jj. 


i 


distinct.  Thos(»  of  the  nortliorn  section  arc  of  clay, 
tlioso  of  the  soutlicrn  always  of  stone,  usually  soap- 
stone.  Mr.  Hoyle  says  the  method  of  forming;  tho 
Canada  jupes  of  this  class  was  to  model  the  clay 
round  a  llt>\ihlo  twi«;  or  thonj^,  one  end  of  which  en- 
tered the  l)as(»  of  the  bowl,  and  which,  being  allowed 
to  remain  there,  disappeared  durinj^  the  burning 
process. 

A  sixth  class  is  that  end)racing  tli(>  elongate  animal 
ligures  with  the  bowl  on  the  back.  'Vhv  animal  is 
sometimes  a  bird,  sometimes  a  wolf,  fox,  or  other 
(piadruped,  with  legs  drawn  up  against  the  sides  of 
the  l)ody.  Some  are  of  very  large  size,  and  nuuiy  of 
doubtful  antiquity.  They  are  all  of  stone,  and  aro 
confined  chiefly  to  Tennessee  and  the  Gidf  States. 

A  few  specimens  of  the  tubular  i)ij)e  have  been 
found  ill  the  Atlantic  division,  but  these  liave  been 
apparently  introduced,  or  they  aro  simply  tubes  hav- 
ing somewhat  the  form  of  the  Pacific  or  California 
type.  There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  a  pii)e  of 
this  form  was  ever  in  use  in  the  Atlantic  division. 


Articles  III'  Shell,  Copper,  r'e. 


103 


CHAPTER  VI H. 


AKTICI.Krt    OK    SUKLL,    i'Ol'I'KK,    AND    OTHKR    MATKKIAI.S. 


Shells  uppfjir  to  have  hvvn  used  quite  extensively 
among  the  niound-huilders  as  implements  and  orna- 
ments and  i)rol)al)h'  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 

We  have  already  noticed  tlie  fact  that  i)ulverized 
shells  were  used  in  tempering  cla}'  whicli  was  to  bo 
manufactured  into  pottery.  It  is  prol)al)le  that 
bivalve  shells  were  used  as  scrapers  in  dressing  hides, 
and  to  a  limited  extent  as  agricultural  implements, 
as  it  is  known  that  sucli  use  was  made  of  them  by 
the  Indians  along  the  southern  coast.  As  they  were 
not  carved,  it  is  ])robable  they  wore  not  considered 
of  suflicient  value  to  accompany  the  dead.  Never- 
theless, it  is  not  a  very  unusual  thing  to  tind  luiwrought 
shells  in  mounds. 

Tho  use  of  certain  largo  univalves,  especially  the 
linsiieon  perversurn,  as  drinking  cups,  i)robably  on 
ceremonial  occasions,  seems  to  have  been  somewhat 
general  in  the  southern  section,  and  not  entirely  un- 
known further  north.  Specimens  of  the  species 
named  have  been  found  as  far  north  as  the  head- 
waters of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  specimen  shown 
in  tho  figure  is  from  an  Arkansas  mound.  (Fig,  47.) 
Mr.  Holmes,  in  his  paper  entitled  "Art  in  Shell," 
Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,    figures    a    number   of    shells    which    he 


104  Stitdi/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

thinks  were  used  as  spoons  or  ladles.     Most  of  these 
were  made  from  the  left  valves  of  Unios. 


I 


Fig.  47.     Engraved  sliell,  .Vrkansa.s. 

Much  the  larger  ])orf;ion  of  the  articles  of  shell 
found  in  mounds  and  ancient  graves  consists  of  those 
which  have  l)een  used  i)s  onuuiients. 


Articles  of  Shell,  Copper,  etc. 


105 


Mention  has  boen  made  of  the  shell  pin,  and  an  ex- 
ample shown  in  Fig.  17  ;  anotlier  form  witli  a  smaller 
head  is  frequently  found.  Various  sugg(>stions  as  to 
the  use  of  these  articles  have  been  presented,  but  it  is 
])r()bable  the  following  quotation  from  Dumont's 
"Memoires  Historique  Louisiana"  will  give  the  cor- 
rect e.\i)lanation  : 

"There  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the  seashore  beaiuiful 
shells  made  by  snails  (orlimayon),  whicli  are  called 
burgaux  ;  they  are  very  useful  for  making  handsome 
tobacco  boxes,  for  they  bear  their  mother-of-pearl  witli 
them.  It  is  of  these  burgaux  that  the  native  women 
make  their  ear-ii.igs.  For  this  purpose  th(>y  take  tho 
end  of  it  whic^h  they  rub  a  long  timi^  on  hard  stones, 
and  thus  give  it  the  form  of  a  nail  furnished  with  a 
head,  in  order  that  when  they  l)lace  them  in  their 
ears,  they  will  be  held  by  this  kind  of  ])lvot.  For 
these  savag(>s  have  much  larg(>r  holes  in  their  ears 
than  our  Frenchmen;  the  thumb  could  ])e  i)assed 
through  them,  however  larg(^  it  might  b(\  Tlie  sav- 
ages also  wear  around  the  neck  plates  made  of  piec(>s 
of  these  shells,  wliich  are  shaped  in  the  same  manner 
on  stones,  and  which  they  form  into  round  or  oval 
pieces  of  about  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter. 
They  are  then  ])ierced  near  tli(>  edge  by  means  of  fire 
and  used  as  ornaments." 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  they  were  worn  in  the 
ears;  whether  used  in  any  other  way  is  a  m(>re  surmise. 

In  tlu^  same  (piotation  mention  is  made  of  the  shell 
gorget,  the  most  el(>gant  of  the  shell  ornanuMits.  One 
type  has  alns'uly  l)een  noticed  and  ligured  (Fig.  IS). 
This  has  engraved  on  it  what  appears,  from  the  num- 
ber of  specimens   bearing  the  same   figure   found  in 


lOG 


Study  of  North  American  Archucoloyy. 


different  sections,  to  be  a  conventionalized  representa- 
tion of  the  rattlesnake,  to  Avliich  was  probably  at- 
tached some  sacred,  talisnianic  or  superstitious  sig- 
nitication.  Shell  gorgets  are  found  witli  various  other 
designs    (Migraved    upon    them.       Another   somewhat 

common  form  is  shown  in  Fig. 
4S.  This  form  appears  to  have 
been  confined  to  what  is  now 
middle  Tennessee.  A  few  have 
been  discovered  bearing  designs 
which  are  strongly  suggestive 
of  Mexican  or  Central  Ameri- 
can origin  ;  one  of  these  from 
Fig.  48.     Shell  gorget,  Ten-  i^     °     i  i     ,, 

nessee.  ^'^^'  htowah  mound,  (Tcorgia,  is 

shown  in  Fig.  49.     Another  in- 


Fig.  49.     Shell  gorget,  Georgia. 


Articles  of  Shell,  Coppri',  etc. 


107 


tcrcstiiig  viii'ioty  is  that  bearing  the  figure  of  a  spider. 
The  few  specimens  of  the  latter  wliich  have  been  dis- 
covered are  mostly  from  southern  Illinois  and  soutli- 
eastern  Missouri,  one  coming  from  eastern  Tennessee. 

All'  her  class  of  shell  ornaments  represents  more 
oi"  less  distinctly  the  human  face.  They  are  supposed 
to  have  been  used  as  masks.  These  liave  been  dis- 
covered in  greatest  abundance  in  the  motuids  of  Ten- 
nessee, l)ut  their  range  is  quite  "wide,  examples  having 
been  reported  from  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Illinois,  Mis- 
souri and  Arkansas,  and  a  somewhat  different  type 
from  Alabama,  Georgia  and  New  York. 

Tlu^  class  of  shell  articles  found  in  greatest  abun- 
dance is  that  including  the  various  types  of  beads. 
The  8imi)lest  form  is  the  i)erforated  small  univalve, 
the  species  most  commonly  used  being  the  Munjindla, 
OUvn,  and  Cyprca.  One  of  the  most  common  varieties 
is  the  discoidal  or  button-shaped  bead  with  a  hole 
through  the  middle.  The  cylindrical  form  is  also  of 
frequent  occurrence.  Articles  of  this  class  appear  to 
have  b(M>n  in  use  among  the  uiound-builders  of  almost 
every  part  of  the  Atlantic  division,  however  they  are 
of  most  frecjuent  occurrence  in  the  middle  and  south- 
ern provinces.  The  extensive  use  of  shell  b(>ads  or 
"wampum"'  as  currency  among  the  Indians  of  the 
Atlantic  corst  is  a  well-known  historic  fact  that  re- 
(piires  no  proof  here.  That  this  custom  should  have 
been  brought  about  by  FAiropeans  at  the  early  date  it 
is  known  to  have  been  in  vogue,  is  simply  impossible, 
as  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  native  custom  by  the  iirst  navi- 
gators who  visited  the  continent.  It  is  ther(>fore  a 
reasonable  presumption  that  it  had  come  down  from 
prehistoric  times. 


lOH  SUuJij  of  Xorth  Anicncmi  Archaeology. 

Porforatod  frcsli-wjiter  p(>arl.s  liavo  been  found  in 
large  niimbors  in  a  few  Oliio  mounds,  and  spocinions 
liavo  boon  occasionallv  unoartli(>d  in  otlior  soctions. 


Tc.iillr  fahricK. 

Tliat  elotli  was  manufacturod  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent bv  tlu!  mound-buildors  has  now  been  demon- 
strated by  incontestiblo  evidence.  It  has  been  found 
in  several  instances  attached  to  co))))er  articles, 
around  -whicli  it  liad  hvon  wrai)i)e(l  and  by  wliicli  it 
vras  pres(M'ved.  lCxanii)h's  of  tliis  kind  liave  been 
discovered  in  eastern  Iowa,  Illinois,  Ohio  and 
Georgia,  and  ])rol)ably  elsewhere.  Clotli  has  also 
l)een  found  in  caves  of  Kentucky,  in  some  instances 
witli  mummilied  or  desiccated  bodies.  A  line  exam- 
ple was  obtained  by  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnol- 
ogy from  a  cave  deposit  of  eastern  Tennessee.  Ac- 
comiianying  this  was  an  almost  conii)lete  m -.t,  witli 
the  subnuirginal  stripe  (juite  distinct.  The  l)urial  in 
this  case  was  aj^parently  coniparativ(>]y  recent,  but 
the  tissue  of  tlie  ch)tli  and  the  accompanying  bone 
needles  {i'"e  ])recisely  of  tlio  type  of  some  of  tlie 
moimd  articles.  R(>mains  of  charred  clotli  have  also 
been  discovered  in  mounds.  Mr.  W.  H.  Holmes  has 
clearly  demonstrated  that  many  of  th*"-  designs  on 
uiound  pottery  have  resulted  from  the  ])ressure  of 
cloth  on  the  surface  while  tiie  vessel  was  yet  compara- 
tively soft.  Probal)ly  the  vessels  had  been  wra])])ed 
in  cloth  to  keep  them  in  shape.  By  taking  impres- 
sions in  clay  from  these  ho  has  been  enabled  lO  give 
various  patterns  of  meshes  and  cord. 

Matting  was  probably  in  common  use  among  the 
mound-buildors,  ]>iit.  like  cloth,  being  subject  to  early 


Articles  of  Shell,  Copper,  etc.  109 

decay   wlien    buried    in   tlie    soil,   comparatively  few 
si>ecimens  have  been  discovered.     Keed  matting  was 
found   in  connection   Avitli   tlie  co))per  articles  o*f  the 
Etowali  mound  of  Georgia,  liereafter  mentioned.     A 
somewhat   remarkable   discovery   was    made   by   tlie 
agent  of  tlu>   Bureau  of   American   Ethnology  in  an 
Arkansas  mound.     This  was  a  layer  of  burnt  matting 
three  inches  thick,  lying  immeaiately  under  a  layer 
of  burnt  clay  some  six  inches  thick.     This  layer,  for 
a  considerable  space,  consisted  entirely  of  burnt  mat- 
ting, through  which  were  scattered  parched  or  burnt 
grains  of  corn.     The  mound  in  which   this  discovery 
was  made  is  a  large  one. 

Copper  articles. 

Copper  appears  to  have  been  used  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent in  almost  every  part  of  the  mound  division. 
Although  it  is  probable  that  more  articles  of  this  class 
have  been  collected  in  Wisconsin  tluin  in  any  other 
district,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  statement  will  ap- 
ply to  specimens  ol)tained  from  mounds,  excluding 
those  pertaining  to  intrusive  l)urials.  Numbers  have 
beer  discovered  in  raounds  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  and 
West  Virginia;  also  in  mounds  and  stone  graves  of 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  northern 
(reorgia. 

Implements  of  this  class  appear  in  considerable 
numbers  among  the  archaeological  collections  of  Can- 
ada, consisting  chiefly  of  arrow-points,  spear-heads, 
adzes,  celts,  and  knife-blades.  But  copper  ornaments 
appear  to  be  comparatively  rare  in  this  section,  and 
consist  chiefly  of  beads.  Some  of  the  knife-blad(>s 
bear  such  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  European 


110 


Stiiih/  of  Soi'tli  Anirriroii  Archaeology. 


I 


make  as  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  they  arc  i)ost- 
Coluinl)ian. 

One  of  the  most  iniporlant  finds  of  copper  articles 
in  an  Ohio  mound  was  that  made  by  Mr.  W.  K. 
Moorehead  in  the  Hopewell  mound,  Ross  county.  At 
the  head  of  what  appeared  to  be  the  principal  person- 
age buried  her<>,  were  imitation  elk-horns,  neatly 
made  of  wood  and  covered  with  sheet  copper  rolled 
into  cylindrical  form  over  tlie  prongs.  These  meas- 
ured twenty-two  inches  in  length,  and  were  fitted  to  a 
copper  cap  or  covering  over  tne  skull.  This  is  cer- 
tainly a  unique  specimen,  as  no  other  similar  article 
has  been  found.  However,  wooden  ear-ornaments 
overlaid  with  coi)per  have  been  discovered  in  a  ston(> 
grave  in  a  mound  of  southern  Illinois  and  in  an  Oliio 
mound,  and  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  makes  mention  of 
them  in  his  splendid  work  on  the  sand  moiuids  of 
Florida.  Copper-covered  wooden  spools  were  ob- 
tained by  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  from 
the  Holloway  mound,  eastern  (leorgia. 

In  addition  to  the  gorgeous  co|)p(M'  head-gear  of  tlie 
chief  personage  of  the  Hopewell  tumulus,  there  were 
copper  })lates  on  the  breast  and  stomach,  also  at  the 
back.  The  copper  had  preserved  the  bones  and  a  few 
of  the  sinews,  also  traces  of  cloth  similar  to  coffee- 
sacking  in  texture.  Copper  s])ool-sha|)ed  objects  and 
other  articles  were  also  found  with  tliis  skeleton.  It 
is  worthy  of  notice  in  ])assing,  that  the  skulls  of  this 
and  of  some  other  mounds  of  the  group  were  of  two 
types,  the  long-head  (dolichocephalic)  and  short-head 
(brachycephalic)  ;  a  fact  also  true  of  one  of  the  tumuli 
of  Caldwell  county.  North  (!arolina. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  ]»uz/Iing  series  of 


Articles  of  Shell,  Copper,  etc. 


Ill 


coi)per  articles  found  in  the  entire  division  is  tliat  ob- 
tained by  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  from  the 
Etowah  group  of  BartoAV  county,  Georgia.*  Tliese 
consist  of  thin,  even  plates  of  copper,  with  impressed 
figures,  some  of  which  remind  us  of  >rexican  designs 
(Fig.  50).     Another  was  that  of  a  bird  of  'he  same 


Fig.  50.     Figured  copper  plate,  Georgia. 


*  Tiiis  group  is  frequently  referred  to  bv  writers  as  "on  tl.e  farm 
of  Col.  Tumlin." 


112  Study  of  Xurlh  American  Archaeology. 

type  as  one  discovered  by  Maj.  J.  W.  Powell  near 
Peoria,  Illinois  (Fig.  51).  Other  jilates  of  the  former 
type  were  discovered  in  a  mound  of  Kicliraond  county, 
(Jeorgia;  another,  with  dancing  figures,  in  a  stone 
grave  of  southern  Illinois  (Fig.  52).     The  skeleton  of 


Fig.  51.     Figured  copper  plate, 
Illinois. 


Fig.  52.    Figured  ^opper 
plate,  Illinois. 


the  Etowah  group,  with  which  the  plates  were  found, 
was  in  a  box-shaped  stone  sepulcher,  and  indicated  a 
man  of  almost  giant  stature,  being  seven  feet  long. 
The  head  rested  on  the  copper  plate  shown  in  Fig.  50. 
This  copper  had  been  wrapped  in  buckskin,  and 
around  this  had  been  wound  cane  matting. 

Other  types  of  copper  articles  found  in  mounds  and 
ancient  graves  are  celts,  so-called  axes,  beads,  disks, 
gorgets,  spindles,  ear-pendants,  rings,  bracelets,  etc. 
The  celts,  axes,  gorgets,  spindles,  some  of  the  beads, 
and  most  of  the  bracelets,  show  very  clearly  that  they 
have  been  beaten  out  of  malleable  copper  with   the 


Articles  of  SJkU,  Copper,  etc. 


113 


rude  implements  of  the  natives.  But  some  of  tlie 
beads,  ear-pendants,  and  biacelets,  and  also  some  of 
the  plates,  are  formed  from  sheet  copjjer,  as  smooth 
and  even  as  that  of  European  manufacture. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  most  of  this  copper,  which 
was  not  introduced  by  Europeans,  was  obtained  from 
the  Lake  Superior  mines.  Some  was  possiljly  ob- 
tained from  drift  copper.  Nor  is  there  any  reason 
for  attributing  the  mining  or  working  of  this  copper 
to  any  other  people  than  the  Indians.  Prof.  R.  L. 
Packard,  an  expert  mining  chemist,  who  is  personally 
familiar  with  the  mines  of  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
and  who  has  thoroughly  studied  all  the  facts  bearing 
on  the  history  of  these  mines,  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  ancient  work  done  in  them  was  done  by  the 
native  Indians.  In  fact,  he  shows  by  positive  histor- 
ical evidence  that  precisely  such  work  as  was  done 
by  the  ancient  workmen  in  the  mines  of  Keweenaw 
Point,  Ontonagon  and  Isle  Roy  ale  has  been  done  by 
Indians,  but  he  warns  us  that  the  word  "  mining,"  as 
used  in  this  connection,  is  not  to  be  taken  in  its  true 
and  technical  sense,  as  there  is  no  evidence  that  more 
was  done  in  prehistoric  times  than  sim})ly  to  expose 
the  copper  masses  and  beat  off  from  these  such  j^ar- 
ticles  as  they  could  with  their  rude  implements.  In 
some  cases  they  heated  the  mass  by  building  a  fire 
on  it,  and  then  suddenly  cooled  it  by  throwing  cold' 
water  over  it. 


the 


Articles  of  stone. 

As  it  is  not  possible  in  this  brief  survey  to  mention 
all  the  types  of  the  minor  art  products  found  in  con- 
s'^ 


114 


Sfinly  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


iiection  with  the  anti(iuitios  of  tlie  mound-builder, 
only  the  typical  and  more  importaui  of  this  class  will 
ho  alluded  to,  it  being  assumed  that  the  reader  is 
more  or  less  familiar  with  the  forms  of  the  chipped 
stones. 

The  most  important  of  the  class  are  the  human 
images,  of  which,  however,  but  few  have  been  dis- 
covered, and  these  are  confined,  geograi)hically,  to 
Georgia,  Tennessee  and  southern  Illinois.  One  found 
by  the  side  of  a  skeleton  lying  in  a  boat-shapi'd  vessel 
of  clay  in  a  raouud  of  eastern  Tennessee  is  shown  in 


Fig.  53.    Stone  image,  Ten- 
nessee. 


Fig.  54.     Stone  image,  I'ennes- 
see. 


Fig.  53.     Another  was  plowed  up   near  the   Etowah 
mounds  representing  a  sitting  female  :  it  is  of  peculiar 


Artlchx  of  Skill,  Copper,  etc. 


Hi 


intiTost  as  showing  tlu»  samo  typo  and  ai)i)arently  one 
method  of  arranging  thi>  luiir.  Anotlicr  siniihir,  but 
male,  imago  lias  recently  been  discovered  in  Tennes- 
see, the  lower  ])arts  of  Avhich  are  more  })erfectly 
worked  out  (Fig.  04).  With  the  exception  of  one 
foimd  in  Union  county,  Illinois,  and  fragtnents  of 
others  ol)tained  from  the  Etowah  group,  Cieorgia,  the 
other  exami)les  are  from  middle  Tennessee. 

In  most  of  these,  the  oblique  or  sloping  face  indi- 
cates a  modeling  after  the  artificially  flatt(>ned  head. 
Another  noticeable  fact  is  the  strong  similarity  in 
facial  type  of  a  majority  of  tlu>  specimens.  This  is 
true  of  one  found  at  Etowah,  Georgia,  four  from  nod- 
dle Tennessee,  one  from  Kentucky,  and  one  found  in 
southern  Illinois.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that,  with 
one  exception,  the  images  found  in  the  mound  section 
have  been  obtained  from  the  stone  grave  area. 

Another  class  of  stone  articles  sup])osed  to  have 
been  used  for  ceremonial  purposes,  and  to  which  the 
name  "banner  stones"  has  been  applied,  is  re])re- 
sented  by  the  types   shown   in   Fig.  55.     A   serie;,  of 


Fig.  55.    Banner  stones. 

outline  forms  of  the  various  types  of  arrow-heads  of 
America,  as  prepared  by  Mr.  Henry  C.  Mercer  for  the 
Columbian  Exposition  at  Madrid,  is  shown  in  Fig.  56. 
Of  these,  Nos.  1-29  are  from  the  United  States  ;  30-34, 


I  l(i  St  inly  of  North  Aincriatn  Arcliaeolo(ji/. 

Ni(  iiragiin ;  'M\-4'2,  Uruguay;  43-^8,  Argontitio  ('on- 
ft'dcratioii ;  49-r)0,  Alaska;  51-53,  Costa  Jtica;  54-58, 
tJroenlaiul ;  59-G4,  IJ.  S.  of  Colombia  ;  G5-G7,  Alaska  ; 


Fig.  56.    Arrow  lioailH. 

68-92,  Mexico;  93-94,  Patagonia;  and  95-97,  Brazil. 
It  is  impossible,  however,  to  present  even  a  summary 
of  the  tyi)es  of  this  chiss  of  articles  in  our  allotted 
space. 


Jnclns)irrs,  Pt/rifniidiil  MuiukIs,  t  ti- 


ll 


CHAPTER   IX. 


INC'LOSIJRKS.     l'YK.\MII>AI,    MorSDS.     ETC. 


'Vlic  nioiumients  of  tliis  section  wliicli  liav«^  jit- 
iractt'd  most  attontioti  aro  tlu^  pyramidal  mouiuls  and 
tho  inclosuvcs,  cspocially  the  latter,  whieh  in  sonu^ 
instauce.s  embrace  an  area  sutticient  for  a  large  sized 
native  town  or  army  camp.  It  is  chiefly  because  of 
these  works,  which  remind  one  of  the  pyramids  of 
Egypt  and  fortifications  of  the  old  world,  that  the 
theory  of  a  cultivated,  mound-building  race  distinct 
from  the  Indian  and  now  extinct,  gained  adlierents. 
Nor  is  this  to  be  wonder(>d  at  when  the  size  and  ex- 
tent of  some  of  these  works  and  the  aversion  of  the 
lordly  savage  of  modern  times  to  physical  labor  are 
taken  into  consideration. 

The  pyramidal  mounds,  as  heretofore  stated,  are  con- 
fined almost  exclusively  to  the  southern  section,  few  oc- 
curring north  of  tlu^  Ohio  river.  As  already  defined, 
these  are  usually  (juadrangular  in  form,  either  s(|uar<' 
or  oblong,  though  a  few  circular  on(>s  in  the  form  of 
a  truncated  cone  have  been  found,  ('omparatively 
few,  especially  of  the  larger  ones,  have  been  thor- 
oughly explored.  Although  somi^  of  those  wliieh 
luivo  been  examined  are  found  to  have  beeii  used  as 
l)urial-places,  yet,  as  a  general  rule,  there  are  indi- 
cations that  they  have  been  surmounted  by  one  or 
more  edifices  of  some  kind.  And  this  is  a])parently 
true  of  them  even  where  used  as  depositories  of  the 


lis  Stiidi/  of  North  America))  Archaeology. 


dead.  In  soino  instances  the  remains  of  the  upriglit 
wooden  posts  whicli  formed  the  supports  of  the  walls 
of  the  buildinj;  are  discovered  ;  in  others  the  evidence 
is  found  in  the  burnt  clay  with  whicli  the  buildincjs 
were  plastered,  which  has  been  frequently  referred  lo 
II.  by  writers  as   ''bricks."     In  soinr 

cases,  only  fire-beds  and  fragments 
of  pottery  have  been  found,  but 
the  experience  of  explorers  has  in 
most  cases  enabled  them  to  decide 
that  these  were  cooking  places, 
.2   hence  in  or  near  the  dwelliiiii  or 

tic  S5 

g  wigwam.     This  conclusion  is  sup- 

^„  ported  by  the  historical  evidence 

,^v.i      ^  mentioned    hereafter,    that     they 

""  ij  I  I  '3  were  occupied  in  the  Gulf  States 

J\\\    2  ^'y  the  houses  of  the  caciques  aiul 

I    \^^  s:  of  the  leading  men,  and  by  tem- 

A     I\  "^  pit'"'  or  council  houses. 

"c  The    terraced   mounds    of    this 

S  type  are  those  having  terraces,  or 

.  apron-like  extensions  running  out 

^"^    from  one  or  two  sides,  sometimes 

to 

E   equaling   or  exceeding   in    length 

and  width  the  mound  itself.  Some- 
times a  graded  way  or  inclined 
pathway  runs  up  from  a  point 
some  distance  outside  of  the  base 
to  the  upper  level.  In  one  or  two 
instances  this  graded  way  is  car- 
ried upward  along  one  face  (Fig.  57),  btit  usually  it 
is  placed  at  right  angles  to  one  side.  Mr.  R.  B. 
Evans,  who  made  some  explorations  in  Arkansas  on 


\   i         /ill',,v        ' 


JinioHiirc.^,  Pijraitiidal  Moun(l>i,  etc. 


119 


behalf  of  t  bo  ('hicngo  Tiinos,  discovorod  a  mound  wbicb . 
from   bis   tigiire    (Fig.   08) ,   appears  to  have    bad  a 


tbis 
's,  or 
r  out 


oine- 
ined 
)oint 
bas(> 
two 
car- 
ily  it 
B. 
s  on 


Fif?.  58.     Double-terraci'il  mound,  Arkansas. 

double  terrace  or  terrace  in  two  steps.  No  pyramidal 
mound,  however,  of  the  ty[)ical  form,  that  is  with 
successive  stages,  has  be(>n  discovered  in  tbis  division. 
Several  instances  occur  wliero  the  main  pyramidal 
structui'o  is  surmounted  by  a  small  conical  tumulus. 
Examples  of  tbis  tyi)e  have  been  found  in  Indiana, 
south-eastern  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  The  celebrated 
Selsertown  mound  of  Adams  county,  Mississippi,  of 
wbich  frequent  mention  is  made  in  works  on  archae- 
ology, ai)pears  to  be  an  artificially-flattened  natural 
el(>vation,  the  sides  of  which  have  been  extended  by 
additions  to  bring  the  contour  to  the  desired  form. 
Tbis  bears  on  its  upper  surface  four  conical  mounds, 
one  of  wbich  is  of  considerable  size,  being  thirty-one 
feet  in  height.  It  is  stated  that  seven  other  mounds  of 
small  size  formerly  existed  on  its  surface,  but  a  care- 
ful examination  by  the  agents  of  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Ethnology  led  to  the  conclusion  that  these  were 
slightly  elevated  house-sites  which  have  been  oblit- 
erated by  the  plow,  as  numerous  fragments  of  burnt 
clay  plastering   (frequently  spoken  of  as   "bricks") 


120 


Study  of  North  Am  rican  Archaeolof/ij. 


wore  found  at  tlio  points  they  are  said  to  have  occu- 
pied.     (Fig.  59.) 


Indosures,  Pijramvlal  Mounds,  etc. 


121 


Iiu'loniires  and  oilier  Mnral  Works. 

Under  the  term  "  Inelosures "  are  generally  in- 
cluded not  only  those  works  consisting  of  completely 
surrounding  walls  of  earth  or  stone,  but  also  defensive 
and  partially  surrounding  walls  thrown  across  necks 
of  land  in  the  bends  of  rivers  or  shore  lines  of  lakes, 
or  built  in  the  rear  of  ])r<)jecting  l)luffs  where  the  de- 
clivity forms  a  natural  defense  in  the  front  and  on  the 
sides. 

Although  pyramidal  mounds  are  seldom  found  else- 
where than  on  the  rich  level  lands,  inelosures  have  a 
much  wider  topographical  range,  occurring  not  only 
on  the  alluvial  levels,  but  frequently  forming  de- 
ff^nsive  \vorks  on  bluff  headlands  and  elevated  })oints, 
J.  .d  here  and  there  encircling  the  summit  of  an 
isolated  hill.  So  apparent  is  it  that  the  works  of 
this  class  found  on  the  elevated  localities  w(>re  built 
for  defensive  purposes,  that  the  name  "hill  forts" 
has  been  applied  to  them. 

As  a  general  rule,  inelosures  are  irregular  in  out- 
line, the  form  being  governed  more  or  less  by  the 
topography  or  some  local  condition.  There  are  neces- 
s;'.rily  few,  if  any,  exceptions  to  this  rule  among  the 
"hill  forts,"  as  the  outlines  of  these  are  governed 
wholly  by  the  topographical  features  ;  but  of  those  on 
level  areas,  several  of  the  Ohio  works,  and  here  and 
there  one  of  the  New  York,  Indiana,  Michigan  and 
Iowa  inelosures  present  quite  regular  figures,  a  few 
of  those  in  Ohio  conforming  with  remarkable  pre- 
cision to  true  geometrical  figures.  The  latter  are 
circular,  square  and  octagonal ;  one  or  two  of  those 
in  Indiana  are  of  the  square  or  parallelogram  form, 


122  Stiidj/  of  Xorfh  Americnn  Archncoiogi/. 

the  others    ;ire  '^-ircular,  or  }K)lv<ional.     Thev  varv  in 


/ 


IV^^-N 


!■ 


extent  from  an  area  of  an  acre  or  less  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  acres.     In  order  that  the  reader  may  judge 


Indosures,  Pyramidal  Mounds,  etc 


123 


M 

k 


si 


for  himself  as  to  the  approximation  of  some  of  the 
Ohio  inclosures  to  true  geometrical  figures,  tlio 
measurements  of  om  taken  under  the  direction  of  the 
author,  are  given  here.  This,  known  as  the  "Obsei-- 
vatory  Circle,"  of  the  great  group  near  Newark,  is 
yet  very  distinct,  being  about  three  feet  high  at  the 
lowest  point,  the  average  height  being  some  four  or 
live  feet. 

The  chords  in  this  survey  were  100  feet  each  ;  the 
stations  were  on  top  of  the  wall  as  near  the  middle 
line  as  could  be  ascertained  by  measurement  and 
judgment,  and  the  stakes  all  set  before  the  bearings 
were  taken.  The  field  notes  are  as  follows,  beginning 
at  station  0  in  the  middle  of  the  gateway  leadin<T  to 
the  octagon   (Fig,  GO)  : 


ige 


Station. 

i      Bearinjj. 

Dis- 
tance 

Width 
of  wall. 

Remarks. 

o        / 

Feet. 

FeeU 

0  to    1 . . 

S.   38  20   E.. 

42 

0 

(  Station  1  at  junction  of  cir- 

1  to   2.. 

S.   20  20  K.. 

100 

30 

l  cle  and  south  parallel. 

2  to    3.. 

S.   17  37  E.. 

100 

3i 

3  to   4.. 

S.     0  00  E.. 

100 

3S 

4  to   5. . 

s.    5  3e\v.. 

100 

38 

5  to   C. 

S.    15  00W.. 

100 

37 

6  to    7.. 

S.   27  45\V.. 

100 

36 

/  Center  of  wall  2  feet  east ; 

7  to    8.. 

S.   3517W.. 

100 

34 

( that  is,  outward. 

8  to   9.. 

S.  48  40\V.. 

100 

',>" 

0  to  10.. 

S.   58  low.. 

100 

..- 

10  to  11.. 

S.   69  13AV.. 

100 

37 

11  to  12.. 

fS.   82  00W.. 

100 

;>.") 

12  to  13.. 

N.  8913W.. 

100 

41 

13  to  14.. 

N.  70  23W.. 

100 

O" 

14  to  15.. 

N.  C015W.. 

100 

38  (?) 
39 

/  Width   estimated,   not 

15  to  l(i.. 

N.  55  SOW.. 

100 

I  measured. 

10  to  17.. 
17  to  18.. 

N.  45  low.. 
N.  33  33W.. 

100 
UX) 

39 

("Observatory.") 

18  to  19.. 

N.  20  29  W.. 

100 

42 

19  to  20.. 

N.  11  22  W.. 

100 

43 

20  to  21 . . 

N.    134W.. 

100 

40 

'?!  to  22.. 

N.    9  06  E.. 

100 

39 

22  to  23.. 

N.  20  54  E.. 

100' 

38 

124 


Study  of  North  Air.c.rican  Ai'chavoUxjy. 


Station  . 

Boaring. 

Din- 

tanci'. 

Width 
ol'  wall. 

Uemarks. 

0        / 

l'\H. 

Firl. 

23  to  24.. 

N. 

31  12   E.. 

i(H) 

3{» 

24  to  25.. 

N. 

42  32  K.. 

UK) 

40 

25  to2t).. 

N. 

53  43   K.. 

100 

42 

2(1  to  27.. 

N. 

«2  43  E,. 

100 

40 

27  to  28.. 

.\. 

75  07  E.. 

100 

44 

28  to  29.. 

M. 

S(i23   E.. 

100 

40 

2!)  tooO.. 

>''. 

82  17   E.. 

100 

44 

;;o  to  81.. 

S. 

72  04  E.. 

100 

42 

:!1   to  32., 

s. 

61)45   E.. 

100 

45 

:;2  to  33.. 

s. 

51  0()    E.. 

100 

r. 

?>'A  to  34 

s. 
s. 

N. 

4t)2!»   E.. 
38  20   E.. 
52  04  E.. 

20 

42 

2!»5 

.function  vvitli  N.  para'l 
Middle  of  gateway. 
North  para  lit'!. 

wall 

34  to    0.  . 

34  to :;().. 

1  to  37.. 

N. 

51  53  E,. 

2it3 

•Siitli  parailcl. 

('lurk  lAni'H. 


0  toll.. 

S.    18  2S\V.. 

SSI!    

0  to  17.. 

S.    5!  27  \V.. 

10571  

0  to    }>.. 

S,   52  0i»\V.. 

1 

0  to  25 . . 

N.  S5  low.. 

770 

1 7  to  11.. 

S.    71  50    E.. 

570 

17  to  25.. 

N.    4  23    E.. 

728 

25  to  1 1 . . 

S.    2S03    E.. 

1024 

I  "J"  indicato.stht' half-way 
I  point  in  tht'circumfert-nce. 


Ill  order  to  brinti  Ix't'on;  the  eve  of  the  roador  tlie 
ai)])roxiTnato  rogiilarily  of  tins  circiihir  work,  let  liiin 
in;;ke  a  plat  lO  a  scale,  willi  a.  line  of  short  chords  in- 
dicating the  li.ie  of  the  sui'vey  along  the  top  of  tlie 
wall,  and  then  draw  llu?  nearest  approximate  circle 
tlier(^to.  (Ireat  cai-e  was  taken  in  inakin<f  the  stirvev, 
and  tlio  plat  and  calculation  were  found  to  conHrni 
the  accuracy  claimed. 

Measuring  the  various  diam(>ters,  the  maximum  is 
found  to  be  ],()")<,)  feet,  and  the  minimum  l,()r)(),  the 
mean  of  which  is  1,054.5  feel,  but  it  is  foimd  l)y  trial 
that  the  nearest  approximate  circle  has  a  diami^ter  of 
1.054  f(>et.     The  widest  divergence   l)etween   tlie   lino 


Iitclosnns,  Pi/rnmidal  MouucIn,  etc. 


125 


IS 

ho 
•ial 

of 
me 


of  survey  aiul  the  circumference  of  the  true  circle  is 
4  feet. 

The  af>;gregate  lengtli  of  the  chords  surveyed  is 
3,304  feet,  while  the  circumference  of  tlie  approxi- 
mate circle  is  3,311  feet;  adding  to  tlie  sum  of  the 
cliords  the  additional  length  of  the  arcs  they  subtend 
(0.1508  of  a  foot  to  each  100-foot  chord),  and  ^vo 
have  a  total  of  3,309  feet.  It  is  therefore  evident 
that  the  inclosure  approaches  in  form  very  nearly  an 
absolute  circle. 

Wliat  means  the  native  authors  of  this  work  used 
to  obtain  results  so  near  gc^ometrical  correctness  in  a 
circle  of  this  size  is  not  known,  but  it  was  probal)ly 
with  a  cord  or  rope,  whicli  people  who  could  manu- 
facture cloth  could  certainly  nuike.  The  survey  of 
the  square  in  the  same  group  shows  the  angles  at  the 
four  corners  to  have  been  respectively  90°  51',  89°  40', 
90°  20',  and  89°  03',  each  being  within  less  than  a 
degree  of  correct.  The  sides  were  found  to  be  re- 
spectively 928,  92C,  939,  and  951  feet  in  length. 

Tlie  most  extensive  example  of  the  "  hill  forts  "  is 
that  known  as  Fort  Ancient,  in  AVarren  county,  Ohio. 
Tliis  crowns  a  spur  of  the  bluff  some  two  hundred 
and  fifty  or  three  hu  Jred  feet  higli,  which  hero  over- 
hangs the  Miami  river.  The  area  embraced  is  only 
some  seventy-five  or  eighty  acres,  but  the  length  of 
the  wall,  which  follows  all  the  windings  and  zigzags 
of  the  margin  of  the  bluff  and  of  the  side  ravines,  is 
a  little  over  three  miles  and  a  half  This  is  one  of 
the  best  preserved  monuments  of  the  Ohio  valley,  the 
surrounding  wall  being  uninjured  save  at  points 
wliero  the  turnpike  cuts  through  it,  and  at  a  few 
])laces  where  ravines  have  been   formed  since  it  was 


120 


Study  of  Xortk  American  Archaeology. 


Inclosures,  Pi/rarnidal  } founds,  etc. 


12' 


ahaiuloncd.  Tliis  Avail,  wliich  is  partly  of  stone,  but 
c'liietly  of  dirt  thrown  up  from  tho  inner  or  upper 
side,  varies  in  lieiglit  from  tliree  or  four  to  nineteen 
feet,  and  from  twenty-five  to  seventy  feet  in  width  at 
base.  As  the  earth  lias  all  been  taken  from  tho  inside 
(except  along  the  liigh  wall  wliicli  crosses  tlie  level  at 
the  rear) ,  and  thrown  outward  on  the  crest  of  the 
slojje,  this  has  left  an  inside  ditch.  As  a  rule  the 
wall  is  strongest  and  highest  at  the  points  of  easiest 
api^roach  ;  and,  at  some  places,  the  outside  slope  has 
been  artificially  ste«>pened,  proving  beyond  any  rea- 
sonable doubt  that  the  work  was  one  of  defense. 

The  great  length  of  the  wall  has  led  to  ilio  supposi- 
tion that  this  is  the  crowning  achievement  of  the 
mound-builders,  but  a  little  calculation  and  thought 
will  show  this  to  be  an  error.  Assuming  the  average 
width  to  be  forty  feet  and  average  height  ten  feet — 
which,  as  the  writer  knows  from  personal  observation, 
is  in  excess  of  the  true  average — the  solid  contents  of 
the  placed  material  is  found  to  be  about  139,000  cubic 
yards.  This  falls  short  of  the  Etowah  raoimd,  in 
Georgia,  about  20,000  cubic  yards,  and  is  less  than 
one-third  the  contents  of  the  great  Cahokia  mound,  near 
East  St.  Louis,  Illinois.  When  we  take  into  consid- 
eration the  fact  that  the  earth  of  the  mound  had  to  be 
borne  some  distance,  while  that  of  the  wall  (with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  the  rear  wall  across  the  level 
neck)  had  only  to  be  thrown  up  from  th.e  ditch,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  building  of  the  latter  involved  much 
less  labor  than  the  mound. 

One  of  the  "hill  forts,"  situated  in  Perry  county, 
Ohio,  is  shown  in  Fig.  Gl.  The  wall  in  this  case  is 
built  of  rough  stones,  laid  up  without  order,  and  in 


I'lS  Stuch/  of  North  Americon  Archacolofji/. 


''*"5N 


CO 


O 

c 


(2; 


"fSS^ 


to '% 


5i 


/.'»Wos"/V',s',  Pjirdiiiiihil  }f(iini<lx,  ilr 


\'1\) 


Its  piv'sciit  ))artiMlIy  (tl)Iit(M'at('(l  coiulitioii,  varies  in 
height  from  mere  traces  at  niic  jxtiiit  to  tivo  or  six 
feet.  The  entire  len^tli,  following  all  the  curves,  is 
0,010  feet. 

The  e(>lebratO(l  and  often-figured  works  at  Newark. 
Ohio,  form,  perhaps,  the  most  elaborate  group  of  this 
class  known  to  the  Atlantic  division.  The  si/o  of  our 
page  will  permit  of  but  a  partial  representation  of 
this  truly  remarkable  anti(|uity.  (Fig.  00.)  Fortu- 
nately for  science,  a  complete  survey  and  accurate 
drawing  of  this  group  was  nuulo  by  (-ol.  Whittlesey 
before  it  had  been  encroached  upon  by  the  spread  of 
the  city.  The  reader  can  form  some  idea  of  the  ex- 
tent from  the  fact  that  the  length  from  the  eastern  to 
tlie  western  extreijiity  is  about  two  miles  ;  the  diame- 
ter of  the  western  circle  is  1,050  feet ;  of  the  octagon, 
about  l,oOO  feet;  and  that  the  fair-grounds  of  the 
Licking  County  Agricultural  Association  are  embraced 
in  the  circle  at  the  south-east. 

An  example  from  Union  county,  Illinois,  inclosing 
mounds  and  hut-rings,  and  including  an  area  of 
twenty-eight  acres,  is  shown  in  Fig.  62.  This  was 
evidently  an  inclosed  village,  and  is  a  type  of  others 
which  occur  in  middle  Tennesse*)  and  south-eastern 
Missouri. 

Our  limited  space  will  permit  us  to  refer  to  only 
one  other  type,  which  apparently  includes  the  well- 
known  work  at  Aztalan,  Wisconsin,  so  well  described 
by  Dr.  Lapham  in  his  work  on  the  anti(|uities  of  that 
state.  An  example  of  this  type,  located  in  Vandcr- 
burg  county,  Indiana,  is  shown  in  Fig.  03.  At  some- 
what regular  distances  along  the  surrounding  wall  are 
9 


i:5o 


Sfinh/  of  Xui'tli  Aimi'iniii  AirfKitohxjy. 


buttress-liko  onlfirgcmcnts,  projrt'tirij^  outward  from 
t\v»'iity  to  thirty  feet.  T\w  distanc*'  lu'twcon  these 
projections  varies,  increasing  From  east  to  west.     Two 


L 


Fig.  63.     Angel  ihouuiIh,  Indiana. 

measured  on  the  east  (from  center  to  center)  were 
ninety-seven  feet  apart ;  two  on  the  north,  one  hun- 
dred and  seven ;  and  two  on  the  west,  one  hundred 
and  twenty.  Tlie  included,  oblong  tumulus  is  of  the 
pyramidal  type,  with  terrace,  flat  on  top,  and  of  com- 
paratively large  size.  This  is  somewhat  peculiar, 
though  not  unique,  in  being  capped  at  one  corner  by 
a  small  conical  mound.  The  large  mound  in  the 
Union  county  (Illinois)  group  (Fig.  G2),  and  a  mound 
in  one  of  the  Paint  creek  (Ohio)  groups,  are  also 
capped  in  the  same  way — that  is,  at  one  corner. 

Another  inclosure  of  this  type  occurs  in  Hardin 
county,  Tennessee,  near  Savannah,  which  seems  to 
have  a  double  bastioned  wall,  or  rather  two  walls. 


InclotMircx,  Pi/rnmidol  Moinnlx,  dr. 


i:n 


However,  as  only  traces  of  tlie  outer  wall  are  seen, 
it  is  possible  tliero  was  an  older  and  a  newer  one. 
Although  these  may  have  been  developed  by  ditl'erent 
l)rocesses — that  of  Aztalan  from  the  cliain-niound 
series,  tliose  of  Indiana  and  Teiuiessee  from  a  custom 
of  placing  towers  or  bastions  at  intervals  along  the 
wall — yet  the  strong  similarity  of  the  examples  is 
evident.  It  may  be  slated  as  possibly  suggestive  that 
the  Aztalan  fort  is  in  the  Siouan  country,  and  that  the 
Quapaws,  who  pertain  ti  the  same  stock,  and  whom 
De  Soto  encoiuitered  in  Arkansas,  are  said  to  have 
dwelt  in  former  times  on  the  lower  Ohio  river,  possi- 
bly in  the  vicinity  of  the  group  in  Vanderburg  county, 
Indiana. 

Were  all  these  inclosures  built  for  defensiv(>  pur- 
poses? Are  they  the  walls  which  the  ancient  people 
placed  about  their  villages  to  protect  them  against  the 
sudden  attacks  of  inveterate  foes?  Such  a  question 
would  seem  superfluous  but  for  the  fact  that  Messrs. 
Squier  and  Davis  assume,  in  their  classic  work  on  the 
"Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  that 
those  works  on  the  level  areas  of  Ohio  which  are  ac- 
companied by  no  ditch,  or  which  have  an  interior 
ditch,  are  sacred  inclosures  ;  that  they  were  built  for 
religious  or  ceremonial  purposes.  Although  this  view 
has  been  accepted  by  numerous  authors,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  founded  on  any  valid  reason.  The  more  rea- 
sonable conclusion  which  is  generally  accepted  at  the 
present  day  is,  that  they  have  been  fortitied  villages. 
Lewis  H.  Morgan  suggested  that  where  the  square 
and  circle  were  combined,  the  former  surrounded  the 
village,  while  the  latter,  which  is  often  without  a 
trench,  was  a  substitute  for  a  fence  about  the  garden 


132  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

ill  which  the  villagers  cultivated  their  maize,  beans, 
squashes,  and  tobacco.  It  is  not  probable  that  a 
people  having  the  skill  to  plan  and  construct  tho 
elaborate  works  of  the  level  areas,  and  the  forethought 
to  build  forts  on  the  neigliboring  hills  as  places  of  re- 
treat, w  ould  have  left  their  villages  unprotected.  The 
ancient  woi'ks  through(3ut  this  region  indicate  a  long 
and  bitter  contest  between  hostile  tribes,  which  ulti 
niately  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  the  builders. 

ITnt-rings  and  Jlouse-sitrs. 

Although  groups  of  mounds  marking  the  sites  of 
ancient  villages  scattered  over  the  Mississippi  valley 
and  Gulf  States  may  be  numbered  by  hundreds  and 
even  thousands,  yet  in  none  of  all  these  is  there  a 
single  house,  a  single  d%velling  or  a  single  temple  re- 
maining from  which  w^e  may  learn  the  architecture  of 
the  ancient  inhabitants.  That  the  mound-builders 
lived  in  liouses  must  be  assumed  ;  the  inference  is 
therefore  irresistible  that  their  dwellings  were  con- 
structed of  perishable  materials,  as  structures  of  brick 
or  stone  could  not  have  entirely  vanished.  Neverthe- 
less, the  monuments  furnish  some  data  which,  by 
comparison  with  known  Indian  habits  and  customs, 
enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  their  buildings. 

At  various  points  of  the  mound  area,  especially  in 
Tennessee,  Illinois  and  south-eastern  Missouri,  the 
sites  of  thousands  of  them  are  marked  by  small  rings 
or  circles  of  earth  from  fifteen  to  fifty  feet  in  diam- 
eter, the  inclosed  area  being  more  or  less  depressed. 
So  apparent  is  it  to  explorers  that  these  are  the  re- 
mains of  circular  houses  or  wigwams  that  the  name 
"luit-rings"  is  generally  applied   to   them.     Tho  in- 


JiivJotiinr.^,  I*i/raini(l(il  Moiind.'<,  etc. 


133 


tfci'ior  area  of  a  number  of  inclosures  in  the  section 
named  is  occupied  chiefly  by  tliese  remains.  It  ap- 
pears, also,  from  a  statemeiH  made  by  Scpiier  and 
Davis,  that  they  wen^  not  uncommon  in  the  Ohio 
groups,  but  the  plow  has  so  wholly  obliterated  them 
that  few,  if  any,  traces  i-emain  at  the  present  day.  It 
is  possible  that  some  of  tlieso  were  the  remains  of  the 
wigwams  of  Indians  who  occupi(>d  these  sites  in  coni- 
l)aratively  modern  times.  Such  evidences  of  subse- 
quent occupancy  liave  been  observed  in  some  of  the 
groups  of  south-eastern  Missouri.  Even  the  graded 
Avay  to  the  great  mound  of  the  Rich  Woods  group  lias 
two  or  three  of  tliese  rings  on  its  surface.  These  re- 
mains give  the  shape  and  si/o  of  one  class  of  dwell- 
ings in  the  sections  namixl.  Excavations  in  the  cen- 
ter usually  bring  to  light  the  ashes  and  hearth  that 
mark  the  place  where  the  fire  was  built,  and  occasion- 
ally unearth  fragments  of  the  vessels  used  in  cooking, 
the  bones  of  animals  on  whose  flesh  the  inmates  fed, 
and  other  articles  pertaining  to  domestic  use. 

There  is,  however,  conclusive  evidence  that  in  one 
section,  at  least,  the  mound-builders  constructed  an- 
other and  more  advanced  type  of  houses.  Mention 
has  already  been  incidentally  made  of  the  so-calh^l 
"house-sitos"  of  Arkansas;  nevertheless,  the  follow- 
ing passage  of  the  12th  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology  relating  to  this  subject  may 
be  {ippropriately  quoted  h(>re  : 

"During  the  i)rogress  of  explorations  by  assistants 
of  the  lUireau  of  AmtM'ican  Ethnology  in  south-east 
Missoui'i,  Arkansas  and  Mississippi,  especially  in  Ar- 
kansas, in  numerous  instances,  probably  hundreds, 
beds  of  hard,  burned  clay,  containing  impressions  of 


134 


Stiuh/  of  Xorth  A  iitcricttii  A  rchtudloii'i. 


I 

It 

t 
I 


|:;r;iss  ;m(l  caiu*,  wcm'c  observed.  Tliese  were  <;'eMer;illy 
rouiul  one  or  two  feel  below  the  surfaco  of  low,  lljit 
mounds,  from  ono  to  live  fe(>t  liin'Ii,  and  from  (iftcHMi 
t  )  lifty  f(>et  in  diameu  ,,  thouii;li  by  no  m(\'ins  conlined 
to  tumuli  of  tliis  ^.'liaraeter,  as  tliey  were  also  obs(>rved 
near  the  surface  of  tlie  lar<:;e,  llat-topped  and  conical 
mountls.      So   common  wen>  tliese  l)urnt  clay  bt'ds  in 


1 


h 


Fig.  (i4.     House  Kite,  .\rkan«a8. 


tlie  low,  flat  mounds  and  so  evidently  tlu^  remains  of 
former  houses,  that  the  e.\ph)rers  gcMierally  speak  of 
them  in  thoir  rei)orts  as  Miouse-siti^s.' 

"As  a  iieneral  rul(>,  in  openinij;  th(>m.  the  strata  are 
found  to  occur  in  this  order:  first,  a  top  layer  of  soil 
fi'oni  one  to  two  I'eet  thick  ;  then  a  layer  of  burnt  clay 
from  four  iiiches!  to  a  foot  thick  (though  usuallv  varv- 


IiicloHiin.s,  I'l/raiiiiditl  MdiindK,  etc 


:};') 


iM<^  from  four  to  ('i_<flit  inclics) .  wliicli  t'orniod  tlio 
|)liist(M'in{r  of  (lie  Willis.  This  was  always  broken 
into  lumps,  ik-vop  in  a  utiiform  uiihrokcMi  layer, 
sliowiiij^  that  it  had  falU'n,  and  was  not  originally 
placed  where  found  ;  immedialely  below  this  is  a  thin 
layer  of  hardened  muck  or  dark  clay,  though  this 
does  not  always  seem  to  be;  distinct.  At  this  depth, 
in  tho  mounds  of  tlio  cast(MMi  pai't  of  Arkansas,  are 
usually  found  oiu;  and  somiUimes  two  skeletons." 

That  tho  explorers  wtM'e  justified  in  their  conclusion 
is  ])roven  by  the  fact  that  in  two  instanc(!s  tins  re- 
mains wer(;  suiliciently  evident  to  enable  them  to 
trace  the  outlines  of  th(!  buildings.  In  both  cases 
these    consisted    of    thr(*o    scpians     rooms    ( l"'i^-.    ()4). 


:t  ~ 


V'\g.  iif).    Supposed  mettiod  of  hitliinj;  hoiiHcs. 

Judj^in*?  by  tlu!  burnt  fragmeius  (tf  tlui  walls  found  in 
one  instance,  it  is  i)i'esumed  that  cane  lathing  was 
used  and  was  worked  in  betw-een  the  posts  as  shown 
in  Fi<:f.  (')5.  !*rof.  Swallow^  describes  a  room  lie  found 
in  on(>  of  tlie  mounds  of  soutli-eastern  Misscniri  as 
formed  by  pol(>s,  lathed  with  split  cane  and  jjlastered 
with  clay  both  inside  and  out. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  quote   DuPratz's  description 
of  the  Indian  stpiaro   houses  of  this  section,  to  show 


7 


1  ■■ 

p 


tt. 


13()  Sfiidy  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

Iiow  exactly  tlicy  agree  witli  what  has  been   revealed 
by  the  mounds  : 

"The  cabins  of  the  natives  are  all  perfectly  square  ; 
none  of  theni  are  less  than  fifteen  feet  in  extent  in 
every  direction,  but  there  are  some  which  are  more 
than  thirty.  The  following  is  their  manner  of  build- 
ing them  :  The  natives  go  into  the  new  forest  to  seek 
the  trunks  of  yotuig  walnut  trees  of  four  inches  in 
diameter  and  from  eighteen  to  tw(>nty  feet  long;  tliey 
plant  the  larg(>st  t)nes  at  four  corners  to  form  the 
breadth  and  the  dome  ;  but  before  fixing  the  others 
they  prepare  the  scaffolding ;  it  consists  of  four  poles 
fastened  together  at  the  top,  the  lower  ends  corre- 
sponding to  the  four  corners ;  on  these  four  poles 
others  are  fastened  crosswise  at  a  distance  of  a  foot 
apart ;  this  makes  a  ladder  with  four  sides,  or  four  lad- 
ders join(>d  together.  This  done,  they  fix  the  other 
poles  in  th(>  ground  in  a  straight  line  between  those 
of  the  cor;  ers  ;  when  they  are  thus  planted  they  are 
lightly  bound  to  a  pole  which  crosses  them  on  the  in- 
side of  each  side  (of  the  house).  For  this  purpose 
large  splints  of  stalks  are  used  to  tie  them,  at  the  height 
of  five  or  six  feet,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cabin, 
which  forms  the  walls  ;  thesc^  upright  ])oles  are  not 
more  than  about  (ift(>en  inch(  s  apart  from  each  other  ; 
a  young  man  ttien  mounts  to  the  end  of  one  of  the 
corner  poles  with  a  cord  in  his  teeth,  fastens  the  cord 
to  the  pole,  and  as  h(>  mounts  within,  the  pole  bends 
because  those  who  ar(>  Ix'low  draw  the  cord  to  bend 
the  pole  as  much  as  is  necessary;  at  the  sanie  time 
another  young  man  fixes  the  pole  of  the  opposite  cor- 
iKM"  in  the  same  way  ;  the  two  poles  being  thus  bent 
at  a  suitable  height,  they  are   fastened  strongly  and 


Inclosures,  Pyramiilal  Monitth,  etc.  137 

evenly.  The  same  is  done  with  the  poles  of  the  other 
two  corners  as  they  are  joined  at  the  point,  which 
make  altogether  the  figure  of  a  bower  or  a  summer 
house,  such  as  we  have  in  France.  After  this  work 
they  fasteii  sticks  on  the  lower  sides  or  walls  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  eight  inches  across,  as  high  as  the  pole 
of  which  I  have  spoken,  which  forms  the  lenuth  of 
the  wall.  " 

"These  sticks  being  thus  fastened,  thev  make  mud 
walls  of  clay,  in  which  they  put  a  sufficient  amount 
of  Spanish  moss.    These  walls  are  not  more  than  four 
inches  thick.     They  leave  no  opening  but  the  door 
which  IS  only  two   feot  in  width   by   four  in   h(«i.dit' 
There  are  some   much  smaller.     They  then  cover'the 
fn-.mework,  which   I  have  iust  described,  with   mats 
of  reeds,  putting  tlie  smoothest  on  the  inside  of  the 
cabin,  taking  care  to  fasten  them  together  so  that  thev 
are  well  joined.     After  this  they  make  large  bundles 
of  grass  of  the  tallest  that  can  be  found  in  the  low 
lands,  and   which  is  four  or  five  feet  long;    this  is 
l)uton  in  the  same  way  as  straw,  which   is' used  to 
eover  thatched  houses.     The   grass  is    fastened   with 
large   canes  and    splints    also  of   canes.     Wlien    the 
cabin  is  covered  with  grass  they  cover  all  with  a  mat- 
ting of  canes  well  bound  together,  and  at  the  bottom 
they  make  a  ring  of  'bind-weeds'  (lianes)  all  around 
the  cabin  :  then  they  turn  the  grass  evenly,  and  with 
this  defense,  however  great   the  wind  may  be,  it  can 
do  nothing  against  the  cabin.     These   coverings  last 
twenty  years  without  being  rei)air(>d." 


Jli8  Slinlij  of  Nurtii  Aiurricaa  Airhaeology. 


CHAPTKH   X. 


TIIK    ANTUill  TV     AM»    Al    lllttKS    ol'      TlIK    MOUNDS. 


V 

r 
i 

If 

[ 
I 


This  is  not  \\w  plfico  for  nor  will  our  space  juM-niit 
tlie  loiigtliy  (iiscussion  of  disputod  ]M)ints  ;  neverthc- 
Icss,  our  woi'k,  lliou,i;'h  dcsimicdly  hrit-f,  would  1)0  iii- 
('0iiii)l('l(>  without  some  notes  in  i'('i:;ird  to  the  a^(>  and 
authors  of  tlir  mounds.  Tlic  opinion  has  already 
l)een  ex])ressed  that  these  inoiiuinenis  are  to  he  at- 
trihuted  to  the  Indiiins,  nieaniii'j;  tliei-(>l)y  the  natives 
found  iiihabitinj:;  this  division  ai  the  litno  of  its  tlis- 
covery  or  theii*  direct  ancestors.  A  few  facts  l)(\aritig 
on  the  ap'  of  some  of  the  tumuli  have  a'so  l)een  in- 
cidentally noticed.  There  are,  how(>ver,  certain  con- 
siderations which  it  would  seem,  reasoning  a  priori, 
shouhl  h'ad  It)  the  coik  lusioii  that  tlie  liuliaus  were 
the  autliors  of  thes(>  works. 

First,  there  is  the  undoubted  fact  tliat  tlu-se 
aborigines  \v(>re  in  possession  of  the  entire  cotintry  of 
the  inound-huilders  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by 
I'Uiropeans.  it  is  therefore  a  reasonable  assuni])tion 
that  they  had  main'ained  possession  of  it  from  its 
first  occupancy  by  them  up  to  the  coming  of  the 
wliites.  However,  tliis  does  not  necessai-ily  forbid 
the  stipposition  that  they  displaced  a  prcH-eding  race. 
Tltat  their  entry  (oidd  not  hav<'  been  veiy  recetit  is 
inferred  from  two  or  three  facts  which  must  be  recog- 
nized in  the  discussion  of  this  subject. 

One   of  lh(>s(^   is  tlie  distitiction  alreadv  mentioned 


!•■ 


The  Antujuity  and  AHthort<  of  fhe  Mounds.        139 


1  li- 


st^ 
nt' 

)y 
on 
its 
ho 
lid 
(■('. 

is 


(>(V- 


HHl 


between  the  types  of  the  Pacific  division  and  the  At- 
hintic  division.  This  distinction,  wliich  pertains  to 
the  archaeologic,  linguistic  and  ethnic  types,  is  too 
well  marked  to  be  overlooked.  Tlu'  lines  also  of 
the  linguistic  map  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Ethnology  conform  in  a  remarkabh^  degree  to 
this  division.  The  Athapascans  overlap  at  the  north 
and  till!  Shoshones  to  a  slight  extent  at  the  south,  but 
l)(>th  are  essentially  Pacific,  notwithstanding  the 
(»l)inion  of  some  authors  to  the  contrary.  This  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  divisions,  which  has  been 
recognized  and  made  the  basis  in  grouping  by  other 
writers,  j^resents  a  formidable  objection  to  the  theory 
that  the  mound-builders  had  any  connection  with 
l)('()])le  of  the  Pacific  division,  or  tends  at  least  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  two  groups  were  formed  sepa- 
rately, or  diverged  at  a  very  distant  date  in  the 
])ast. 

A  second  fact  bearing  in  the  same  direction  is  the 
distribution  of  stocks  and  tribes  in  the  Atlantic  divi- 
sion. As  a  general  ride,  most  of  the  members  of 
each  of  the  difi'erent  stocks  were  found  in  contact  or 
in  close  geographical  relation  with  one  another.  It  is 
most  likely  that  the  formation  of  tribal  groups  had 
begun  before  entry  into  the  temperate  portion  of  the 
division,  but  the  complete  establishment  of  these 
distinctions  was  after  entry.  This  of  Uv^v'cssity  re- 
(juired  numy  C(>ntuvies,  and  presents  another  serious 
objection  to  the  sui)position  that  the  Indians  were 
not  the  mound-buildors.  True,  it  nuiy  bo  said, 
that  tho  Indian  hosts  as  they  enteretl  the  area 
drove  out  tlie  former  inhabitants ;  but  the  verv 
distant    date    to   which    this    supposition    refers    the 


140 


Study  >)/  North  American  Archacohtj!/. 


mound-building  era  is  not  justified  by  the  works  or 
any  other  known  data.  Moreover,  tlio  objection  to 
tliis  theory  becomes  apparently  insurmountable  when 
it  is  shown  that  mound-building  was  beyond  question 
continued,  at  least  to  some  extent,  into  post-Eurojjean 
times. 

The  i^roof  of  the  last  statement  is  found  \n  both  his- 
torical and  monumental  evidence.  The  chroniclers  of 
De  Soto's  strange  and  unfortunate  expedition  through 
the  Gulf  States  in  1540-2,  whose  statements  could 
not  have  been  warped  by  any  preconceived  opinions 
in  regard  to  the  authorship  of  these  works,  speak  so 
jjositively  as  to  the  building  and  use  thereof  by  the 
Indians  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  the  custom  of  build- 
ing and  using  mounds  had  not  been  abandoned  at 
that  date  in  the  sections  through  which  the  expedition 
passed.  They  not  only  make  repeated  allusions  to 
them,  but  state  expressly  that  they  were  built  and 
used    by    the    Indians.      Take    for   example    the    fol- 


lowing : 


"The  Indians  try  to  place  their  villages  on  elevated 
sites  ;  but,  inasmuch  as  in  Florida  there  are  not  many 
sites  of  this  kind  where  they  can  conveniently  build, 
they  erect  elevations  themselves  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  They  select  the  spot  and  carry  there  a  quantity 
of  earth,  which  they  form  into  a  kind  of  platform  two 
or  three  pikes  in  height,  the  summit  of  which  is  large 
enough  to  give  room  for  twelve,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
houses,  to  lodge  the  cacique  and  his  attendants.  At 
the  foot  of  this  elevation  they  mark  out  a  square 
place,  according  to  the  size  of  the  village,  around 
which  the  leading  men  have  their  houses.  .  .  .  To 
asceiid  the  elevation  they  have  a  straight  passageway 


The  Antliiiutu  and  Antkor.H  of  ilir  Munnda. 


141 


from  bottom  to  top,  fifteen  or  twonty  feet  wide. 
Here  steps  arc  made  by  massive  beams,  ami  otliers 
are  planted  firmly  in  tiie  ground  to  serve  as  walls. 
On  all  other  sides  of  the  platform  the  sides  are  cut 
steep."' 

This  not  only  mentions  the  form  l)v  speaking  of  the 
work  as  a  "platform  two  or  three  pikes  high"  (about 
24  to  40  feet),  but  states  positively  that  the  Indians 
built  them,  and  indicates  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  erected. 

Another  one  of  the  chroniclers  says  :  "The  caciques 
of  this  country  make  a  custom  of  raising  near  tlieir 
dwellings  very  high  hills,  on  which  they  sometimes 
build  their  houses."  Here  mound-building  is  ex- 
pressly alluded  to  as  a  "custom."  The  other  of  the 
three  chroniclers,  speaking  of  the  town  of  Ucita,  in 
Florida,  says:  "The  lord's  (cacique's)  house  stood 
near  the  beach  on  a  very  high  mound  made  by  hand, 
for  strcMigth." 

As  two  of  these  tlireo  chroniclers  accompanied  the 
expedition,  and  the  other  received  his  information 
from  the  survivors  and  manuscript  accounts  by  par- 
ticii)ants,  which  manuscripts  are  now  lost,  there  is  no 
reason  to  question  their  correctness,  especially  as 
earthworks  like  those  described  are  found  in  the 
region  through  which  the  expedition  must  have 
pass<>d. 

As  allusion  is  made  by  these  writers  to  works  in 
Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Arkansas, 
it  is  evident  that  the  custom  of  building  mounds  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  Gulf  States  in  1540  ;  nor  had  it 
ceased  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  later,  when  the 
French  descended  the  Mississippi  and   took  possession 


142 


Study  (tf  Xorth  American  Archaeologij. 


of  the  torritoi'v  hordpriiii;  its  southoni  coufho,  as  thoao 
hardy  pioui'ors  more  than  onco  alhido  to  these  works 
as  built  by  the  Iiidiatis,  Nor  do  these  writers  refer  to 
mounds  only,  as  they  describe  the  fortifications  which 
encircled  the  native  villages,  both  walls  and  moats, 
constructions  which,  under  the  corroding  effect  of 
time  and  the  elements,  would  leave  precisely  such 
works  as  are  now  found  in  several  places  in  that 
section. 

As  the  larger  and  more  important  monuments  of 
the  entire  southern  section  are  attributed  by  this  di- 
rect and  positive  historical  evidence  to  the  Indians,  it 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  all  the  prehistoric  works 
of  that  section  are  attributable  to  the  same  race,  un- 
less some  be  found  which  bear  unmistakable  marks  of 
a  different  culture.  Such  exceptions  can  apply,  if  at 
all,  only  to  the  few  copper  plates  and  engraved  shells 
bearing  figures  having  a  resemblance  to  Mexican 
types,  and  then  to  the  figures  alone. 

The  monuments  also  furnish  some  decisive  testi- 
mony on  the  same  line.  Articles  of  European  make 
or  derivation  have  been  found  in  a  numlier  of  tumuli 
where  their  presence  could  not  be  attributed  to  in- 
trusive burial. 

Hawk's-bells  have  been  found  in  a  Georgia  and  a 
Tennessee  mound  ;  iron  articles  (not  meteoric)  in  a 
Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio  mound  ; 
and  other  articles  of  European  manufacture  have 
been  found  in  several  other  mounds,  both  of  the 
northern  and  southern  sections.  As  allusion  is  made 
here  only  to  articles  which  were  not  connected  with 
intrusive  burials,  it  is  apparent  that  the  mounds  in 
which  they  were  found  belong  to  the  post-European 


The  Arcfiquity  and  Autliorn  of  ike  Monndn.        143 

era,  and  furnish  additional  evidence  that  the  custom 
of  buiklinj;  mounds  had  not  ceased  at  tlie  time  of  the 
discovery  of  America.     As  it  is  a  fair  and  apparently 
unavoidable  inference  that  the  Indians  liad  long  been 
the  sole  occupants  of  the  division  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery,  and  it  is  proven  that  the  custom  of  build- 
ing mounds  had  not  ceased  at  that  time,  tlio  only  rea- 
sonable conclusion  is  that  the  Indians  were  the  authors 
of  all  thrse  works.     The  supposition  that  there  was  a 
break  in,   and   recommencement  of,  this   custom,  is 
wholly  gratuitous,  and  based  on  neither  valid  evi- 
dence nor  sound  reasoning.     Nor  is  the  theory  that, 
while  some  of  the  monuments  are  due  to  the  Indians, 
others  are  to  be  ascribed  to  a  different  race,  justified 
by  the  data,  or  reasonable,  as  no  one  is  able  to  define 
the  characters  which  distinguish  the  classes.     If  the 
Indians  built  mounds  of  the  most  advanced  type  and 
of  large  size,  as  history  shows  positively  the  natives 
of  the  Gulf  States  did,  there  is  no  necessity  for  attrib- 
uting the  works  of  the  middle  and  northern  sections 
to  a  different  race.     That  the  mound-builders  were 
divided  into  various  and  often   contending  tribes,  is 
shown  by  the  works  for  defense  and  protection,  as  also 
by  the  evidences  of  varying  customs.     Yet  there  is 
nothing  in  the  antiquities  to  indicate  a  higher  culture 
than  that  of  the  southern  Indians,  or  a  greater  differ- 
ence between  the  people  of  the  different  sections  than 
existed  among  the  natives  wlien  first  encountered  by 
the  whites. 

If  we  compare  the  customs  of  the  mound-builders, 
so  far  as  shown  by  their  works,  and  their  ai'tefacts, 
with  those  of  the  Indians,  as  done  by  Major  Powell,  we 
reach  the  same  conclusion  as  that  set  forth  above.    As 


144 


Sladi/  of  Xoi'th  Ainn'Icita  Airlniculnijij. 


there  is  no  liistoricul  or  otlicr  evidence,  unless  derived 
from  the  anticiuities  themselves,  tlmt  any  other  nice 
than  tlio  Indians  ever  occupied  this  region,  or  any 
part  of  it,  previous  to  its  discovery  by  the  Europeans 
at  tlie  close  of  tho  fifteenth  centurv,  we  enter  the  dis- 
cussion  with  the  presumption  in  favor  of  the  view 
that  they  were  the  authors  of  tlie  monuments.  Every 
fact,  therefore,  ascertained  l)y  an  examination  of  these 
•works,  which  indicates  a  simihirity  between  the 
mound-builders  and  Indians  in  customs,  arts,  re- 
Hgious  beliefs,  or  modes  of  life,  is  an  argument  in 
favor  of  the  theory  of  an  Indian  origin. 

It  was  a  custom  among  the  mound-builders,  at 
least  in  several  localities,  to  remove  the  Hesh  of  t'lC 
dead  before  depositing  them  in  their  final  resting 
places.  That  a  similar  custom  prevailed  among  a 
number  of  Indian  tribes,  i.-'  well  known  to  all  students 
of  native  habits  and  customs.  Burial  beneath,  or  in 
dwellings  was  practiced  in  some  sections  by  both 
mound-builders  and  Indians.  Burial  in  a  sitting  or 
s(iuatting  position  was  by  no  means  uncommon 
among  tho  former,  and  that  the  same  custom  was 
followed  by  some  tribes  of  the  latter,  is  attested  by 
La  Ilontan,  Bossu,  Lawson,  Bartram,  Adair  and  other 
writers.  The  use  of  fire,  to  some  extent  in  tlie  burial 
ceremonies  of  both  is  proven  by  tho  mounds  and  his- 
tory. Certain  tribes  of  both  races  buried  tlunr  dead 
in  box-shaped  stone  sepulchers.  Shell  gorgets,  with 
figures  engraved  thereon  were  in  use  among  botli.  It 
was  not  an  unusual  custom  with  several  tribes  of  In- 
dians to  place  bark  beneath,  and  often  above,  tho 
bodies  of  the  dead.  Numerous  evidences  of  a  similar 
mode  of  burial  have  been  found  in  the  mounds.     Ac- 


Tkr  Anti(julti/  anil  AHlliiirs  of  (he  i)foimds.         1-1" 


thor 
rial 
liis- 
eacl 

with 
It 
In- 
tho 

lilar 
Ac- 


cordini^  to  Lawson,  it  was  not  uiu'omnioii  ainoiii;  the 
Carolina  tribos  to  wrap  tho  body  of  tlio  dead  in  mats 
made  of  rush(>s  or  cane.  Portions  of  rush  or  cane 
inattin<4  have  frequently  been  found  about  human  re- 
mains in  southern  tumuli.  Tho  mound-builders  of 
tho  niiddlo  zone,  from  eastern  Iowa  to  West  Virginia, 
made  use  of  stone  jjipes  of  a  peeidiar  form  known  as 
tho  "monitor"  type.  Adair,  about  the  midillo  of  the 
last  century,  described  one  kind  of  jjipe  made  by  the 
Chcrokees  precisely  of  this  peculiar  typo.  As  he 
was  totally  imaware  of  what  was  hidden  in  tho 
moiuids  of  Ohio  or  Iowa,  his  description  must  have 
been  made  from  what  he  saw.  And  thus  we  might 
go  on,  showing  link  after  link  binding  together  the 
mound-builders  and  Indians,  making  the  ties  so 
ntimcrous  and  strong  as  to  leave  no  plausible  basis  • 
for  any  other  theory. 

Having  given  this  brief  and  incomplete  outline  of 
tho  reasons  for  believing  the  authors  of  these  ancient 
works  were  none  other  than  tho  Indians  found  in- 
liabiting  this  division  at  its  discovery  by  Europeans, 
and  their  immediate  ancestors,  we  will  state  briefly 
some  of  tho  conclusions  which  appear  to  bo  legiti- 
mately drawn  from  the  archaeological  data  which 
liavo  so  far  boon  obtained,  and  from  other  corrobo- 
rating evidence. 

Neither  the  microscopic  study  of  a  landscape  nor  a 
minute  analysis  of  its  parts  will  give  us  a  true  con- 
ception of  its  beauty  or  grandeur  or  its  general  ap- 
pearance ;  it  is  only  when  wo  look  upon  it  as  a  whole 
that  this  is  clearly  perceived.  So  it  is  with  some 
things  in  all  branches  of  science  and  thought,  and  so 
10 


14G 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


it  is  to  some  degree  with  one  aspect  of  the  archaeolog- 
ical features  of  the  Atlantic  division  of  our  continent, 
and  possibly  of  the  entire  continent.  Compared  in 
the  aggregate  with  the  archaeology  of  Mesopotamia 
or  Egypt,  the  contrast  in  age  is  too  apparent  to  be 
misunderstood.  While  the  latter  bear  the  marks  of 
hoary  age  impressed  by  the  weight  of  milleniums,  the 
others  seem  in  comparison  the  relics  of  but  three  or 
four  centuries  past. 

Compare  the  excavations  necessary  to  uncover  the 
remains  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Troy  and  Mycenia  with 
those  necessary  ^^o  reveal  the  deepest  remains  of  the 
mound-builders,  and  the  latter  seem  almost  child's 
play  in  contrast  with  the  others.  In  other  words, 
there  is  nothing  in  tlie  general  aspect  of  the  archaeol- 
ogy of  ^his  region  to  indicate  the  evident  antiquity  of 
some  of  the  Old  World  sites.  So  far  as  the  general 
trend  of  monumental  evidence  goes,  it  is  decidedly  in 
the  direction  that  man's  appearance  in  this  region  is 
recent  as  compared  with  the  length  of  time  he  has  in- 
habited some  of  the  Old  World  sections. 

The  theory  of  a  race  preceding  the  Indians  is  as  yet 
but  mere  conjecture,  which  must  be  put  aside  until 
more  substantial  proofs  can  be  adduced  than  any  which 
liave  so  far  been  presented.  Mr.  Mercer's  examina- 
tions of  the  cave  deposits  have  failed  to  give  even  the 
slightest  support  to  this  theory.  It  is  possible  and 
not  even  improbable  that  the  Eskimo  in  prehistoric 
times  had  pushed  their  way  southward  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson. 
But  no  one  at  the  present  day,  who  lias  made  a  study 
of  these  people,  claims  a  more  southern  origin  for 
them  than  what  lias  been  aln^adv  mentioned. 


DanUloa  of  ilie  Moaiul-Bulhliiuj  Agi . 


14' 


CHAPTER   XI. 


DIKATION    OK    TIIK    MorND-IJUILDINC    A(iR. 

It  is  not  possible  for  iis,  with  tlio  data  which  liavo 
so  far  been  obtained,  to  fix  with  any  approximate  cer- 
tainty the  date  when  the  Indians  first  appeared  upon 
the  scene.  That  we  must  go  back  a  thousand  years 
preceding  the  discovery  by  Columbus  may  be  safely 
assumed,  and  that  thrice  that  number  is  not  sufficient 
will  bo  claimed  by  many.  If  the  supposition  that 
the  tribes  of  the  various  stocks  were  diifcrentiated 
after  tlicir  entrance  into  the  division  be  accepted,  the 
linguist  will  require  time  for  the  formation  of  these 
tongues,  nor  will  lie  be  content,  even  supposing  the 
stocks  had  been  formed  before  entry,  with  an  allow- 
ance for  the  development  of  the  Algonquian  and  Iro- 
quoian  dialects  of  less  than  two  or  three  thousand 
years.  Unfortunately,  liowever,  for  archaeology, 
neither  linguists  nor  geologists  have  as  yet  succeeded 
in  reducing  their  chronological  periods  to  years  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  generally  satisfactory  to  scientists. 
With  their  own  appropriate  units  of  measurement 
the  scales  they  form  are  no  doubt  valuable  and  can 
be  used  as  a  basis  in  other  investigations  ;  but  the 
attempts  to  put  them  into  years  have,  as  yet,  shown 
such  wide  divergence  as  to  render  tliem  practically 
unavailable  to  students  in  other  branches.  The  stu- 
dent of  archaeology  is  therefore  advised  to  rely  chiefly 
upon  his  own  scale  based  on  tlie  testimonv  of  the 
monuments,  as  less  liable  to  lead  liim  astray. 


148 


Siiaii/  of  \orth  American  Archacolofj!/. 


ts 


Althougli  tlie  time  and  tlio  manner  of  tlie  first  en- 
try of  the  Indians  into  this  region  are  questions  wliich 
we  are  un'olo  to  answer  satisfactorily,  we  are  not  so 
wholly  at  sea  in  regard  to  the  age  of  its  oldest  monu- 
ments— or  in  other  words,  as  to  the  period  of  time 
embraced  in  the  mound-building  age.  That  this  age 
did  not  end  until  post-European  times,  has  been 
shown.  That  its  commencement  does  not  reach  back 
into  hoary  antiquity  appears  to  be  legitimately  in- 
ferred from  several  facts,  of  which  only  two  or  three 
can  be  noticed  here,  and  that  but  briefly. 

The  supi)ositi()n  that  tlie  animal  or  effigy  mounds 
of  the  Wisconsin  district  belong  to  a  ditt'erent  era 
than  the  other  classes  is  negatived  by  abundant  evi- 
dence, which  will  be  found  in  the  author's  Report  on 
Mound  Explorations  in  the  Tith  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  It  may  be  stated 
here,  however,  that  the  effigies  are  so  closely  linked 
with  the  other  mounds  of  the  same  district  as  to  for- 
bid the  idea  that  they  pertain  to  ditFerent  races  or 
different  eras.  As  Dr.  Lapham  has  well  contended, 
the  evidence  seems  indisputable  that  mound-building 
in  that  section  was  not  discontinued  until  the  incom- 
ing of  the  white  race.  It  may  also  be  further  stated 
that  there  is  indisputable  evidence  that  the  custom  of 
forming  effigies  on  the  surface  of  the  eartli  continued 
f,(  •  into  post-European  times.  This  survival  is  found 
in  certain  animal,  human  and  other  figures  outlined 
with  granite  bowlders  (occasionally  with  buffalo 
bones)  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  usually  on 
elevated  positions  and  sometimes  upon  the  summits 
of  the  highest  buttes.  (Fig.  66.)  These  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  Dakotas,  but  Mr.  T.  H.  Lewis,  who  has 


^ 


£ 


ei 
el 
ill 


Duration  of  the  around-Building  Age.  I49 

explored  somewhat  carefully  this  north-western  sec- 
tion, says  they  are  found  in  western  Iowa  and  Ne- 
braska, and  northward  to  Manitoba,  and  from  west- 
ern Minnesota  to  Montana.    They  are  i)robably  Siouan 


a 
Q 

,4? 


.a^' 

k 

0- 

£i   Q 

0 

^      ^^ 

% 

^^      J^ 

t 

^ 
6 

0 

ej9 

0 


Q 


Fig.  (i(5.     Surface  eflijjry.  South  Dakota. 

The  mound-building  age  must  therefore  bo  consid- 
ered one  and  unbroken.     It  is  probable  that  the  more 
•"laborate   works,  the  pyramids,  the  large  inclosures 
and  true  cfRgios,   form  the   most  ancient  types      Be 


Sludi/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


this  as  it  may,  one  cortain  and  necessary  sign  of  lonjT- 
continuod  occupancy  is  wanting  in  every  part  of  the 
division.  This  is  that  stratification,  indicating  suc- 
cessive waves  of  population,  changes  in  culture,  and 
other  signs  of  passing  ag'>s  and  alternate  times  of 
building  up  and  of  destroying,  which  is  wholly  want- 
ing in  tlie  monuments  of  the  division,  or  is  limited 
to  the  evidences  in  a  ^cw  instances  of  subsequent 
temporary  occupancy  Oi  certain  groups  of  works. 
Wliat  the  caves  may  reveal  when  thorouglily  explored 
is  unknown,  but  so  far  as  they  have  been  examined 
there  is  nothing  whicli  seems  to  bear  against  this  con- 
clusion. The  cave  explorations  by  Mr.  Mercer,  which 
have  been  carefully  and  intelli>i;ently  carried  on,  have 
furnished  no  indications  of  a  paleolithic  people  or  any 
other  race  than  the  Indians,  If  mound-building  had 
been  carried  on  for  thousands  of  years  it  may  be  as- 
sumed as  certain  that  some  of  the  favored  localities 
of  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  would  show  different 
horizons  of  ancient  works,  or  at  least  of  the  relics  and 
remains  which  had  been  deposited  therein,  and  the 
depth  of  the  accumulation  would  1)(^  much  greater 
than  it  is  found  to  be. 

There  are  mounds  which  present  some  evidence  of 
having  been  built  up  by  successive  additions  at  differ- 
ent dates  ;  others  which  bear  the  marks  of  repeated 
occupancy  ;  and  o'diers  which  show  two  or  more  series 
of  burials  with  greatt  i*  or  less  intervals.  There  are 
indicatioiis  in  some  sectior.s  of  successive  waves  of 
population  ;  but  throughout  all  we  find  evidences  of 
the  same  culture,  like  customs,  like  l)eliefs  and  indica- 
tions of  the  same  racial  traits.  Even  the  t-vidence 
furnished  bv  the  shell  mounds  and  kitchen-middens  is 


Duration  of  ilic  Mnnnd-B\nJding  Agr. 


151 


substautiiilly  the  same  as  that  of  tlie  otlior  moiui- 
ments.  There  is  notliing  to  vary  the  conclusion  that 
the  Indians  were  the  authors  of  all  these  works. 
There  are  no  evidences  of  greaier  changes  tlian  would 
result  from  the  outgoing  of  one  tribe  and  the  in- 
coming of  another.  There  are  no  indications  of  any 
great  advance  in  culture  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end. 

Nadaillac,  who,  at  the  time  he  wrote  his  "Prehis- 
toric America,"  was  inclined  to  attribute  the  mounds 
of  the  region  now  under  consideration  to  some  other 
people  than  the  ancestors  of  the  Indians  found  inhab- 
iting it,  remarks  as  follows  in  rega  d  to  the  length  of 
the  mound-building  age  : 

"From  the  mounds  themselves  we  can  learn  notli- 
ing. A  lapse  of  thirty  centuries  or  of  five  would  ac- 
count equally  well  for  the  development  of  the  civiliza- 
tion they  represent.  Stronck  ascribes  the  erection  of 
some  of  the  mounds  to  the  earliest  days  of  our  own 
era,  and  thinks  that  some  of  them  must  have  been 
abandoned  between  the  sixth  and  twelfth  centuries. 
The  margin,  it  is  evident,  is  wide.  Force,  in  fixing 
on  the  seventh  century  as  the  most  flourishing  period 
of  these  people,  and  Hellwald,  in  making  them  con- 
temporary with  Charlema.-rne,  would  appear  to  indorse 
to  some  extent  the  hypothesis  of  Stronek.  Short,  in 
an  excellent  work  on  the  North  American  Indians, 
tells  us  that  one  or  at  the  most  two  thousand  years 
only  can  have  elapsed  since  the  mound-builders  were 
compelled  to  abandon  the  valley's  of  the  Ohio  and  its 
tributaries,  and  but  seven  or  eight  hundred  since  they 
retired  from  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Lastly,  the  early  explorers   found    mounds  occupied 


-r" 


l~)'2  Sti((li/nl'  Xortli  A  iiKrint II  A  rclKicnliiiji/. 

and  even  Uciiii^  ('OMsd'uctcd  within  tluOast  few  liun- 
(li'f  d  years.  So  we  imisi  content  ourselves  with  tho 
eonclusion  iliat,  whatever  tlie  period  of  tlieir  initia- 
tion, it  is  ])rohal)le  that  wliat  may  h<'  called  tho  epoch 
of  niound-hiiildiiin;,  hm  recently  terniinated,  lias  been 
of  very  long  duration.  These  estimates,  divergent 
as  tliey  are,  may  serve  to  j^ive  some;  idea  of  our  ig- 
norance in  reiiard  to  tlie  actual  aiiti(|uitv  of  these 
ruins." 

As  mound-building  in  ihis  division  had  not  ceased 
when  Kuroijcans  appeared  upon  tlu^  scene,  it  n\ay  bo 
infe."red  from  tho  data,  ])resented  that  oni^  tliousaiid 
years  preceding  that  (hit(*  would  sullice  for  tho  begin- 
ning and  development  of  the  custom  and  for  the  con- 
struction of  all  the  known  works.  That  it  may  havo 
continu(>d  for  a  nuich  longer  time  is  not  denied  ;  all 
that  is  claimed  here  is  that  theiu-  is  nothing  which  has 
as  y(>t  been  found  ix'rtainiiig  to  the  mounds  and  other 
ancient  works  of  tin;  division  Avhich  hilars  incontesta- 
l)le  evidence  of  reaching  back  more  tlian  a  tliousand 
years  previous  to  tho  cliHCovory  i)y  (Jolumbus. 

Prrhi.stoi'ir,  Movniiciitu  <if  I'njiiildl.'nn . 

An  examination  of  a  nia[)  sliowing  the  localities 
of  tho  anticjuities  would  Iea<l,  without  other  evidence, 
to  the  conclusion  that  tho  larger  streams  mark  tho 
lines  of  migration,  as  it  is  along  these  tho  works  are 
chiefly  ranged.  Hut  tho  intcu'ior  of  tlu^so  monuments 
when  exposed  by  excavation  tell  a  difl'ercnt  tale,  at 
least  so  far  as  the  two  groat  streams,  the  Mississippi 
and  Ohio,  are  concerned.  ^Pheso  inform  us  in  terms 
too  ck  ar  to  b(>  misunderstood  that  tho  migration  has 
been  across   these    Wider  highways    instead  of  along 


Dnratloii  <>/  the  MoinnJ-liuiJiJliHj  Aijc. 


153 


lO 

ro 
ts 
at 

pi 
ns 

as 


»^g 


tlu'ir  fuursos.  Th(M'(>  is  no  stretch  along  tli(>  Missis- 
^il)pi  -vvIkm'o  mounds  and  contents  of  a  similar  typo 
line  cither  sido  for  a  greater  distance  than  the  western 
hank  from  Dubuque  to  tlu^  Des  Moines  i-iver,  Iowa. 
As  we  move  up  and  down,  we  find  repeated  changes 
from  one  type  to  another,  indicating  the  i)resence  of 
ditleront  tribes  or  dilfcrent  customs.  However,  art 
lines  and  even  custom  lines  often  cross  ethnic  lines 
or  fail  to  coincide  therewith.  The  chief  pottery 
belt,  swcf^ping  i"ound  in  a  crescent  from  middle 
Tennessee  thToui^h  west(M'n  Kcntuckv,  southern  Illi- 
nois  and  south-eastern  Missouri,  culminating  in  east- 
ern Arkansas,  must,  in  the  golden  age  of  the  mound- 
builders,  have  embraced  two  or  three,  if  not  mor(\ 
tribes,  belonging  apparently  to  dilferent  stocks.  In 
'Penn(>ssce  and  southern  Illinois  the  chief  mode  of 
burial  was  in  box-shaped  stone  sarcophagi,  a  mode  of 
sepulture  jdmost  entirely  unknown  in  that  part  of  the 
crescent  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

Comparing  the  antiquities  of  the  different  sections 
of  the  division,  it  would  seem  that  some  in  the 
(xulf  States,  ill  Ohio,  south-eastern  Indiana,  and  in 
Illinois,  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis,  bear  indications 
of  greatest  age,  while  those  of  New  York  and  Canada 
present  the  fewest  evidences  of  antiquity.  That  the 
latter  are  attributable  to  the  Iroquoian  and  i:)ossil)ly 
Algonquian  tribes  inhabiting  those  sections  at  the  time 
they  were  first  visited  by  the  whites,  is  now  generally 
conceded,  but  the  particidar  tribes  or  even  stocks  to 
whom  the  former  are  to  be  ascribed  is  yet  an  unsettled 
question.  The  author  has  given  reasons  in  previous 
publications  for  believing  that  some  of  the  principal 
works  in  Ohio  and  the  valley  of  the  Great  Kanawha, 


154 


St  Kill/  "f  -^'fJi'di^  Aiinrivnn  Airhaculu(ji/. 


irgin- 


West    ^' 
with  v."  '  "1 
Tallcga. 
loading  au; 


are    attributable    to   tho    Cherokecs, 
identifies  the  traditional  Tallegwi  or 
lew  has  also  been  adopted  by  somo 
ji  iti(  • 


The  fact  that  the  luound-builders  do  not  appear  to 
have  extended  tlieir  permanent  settlements  eastward 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  north  of  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina,  would  seem  to  mark  this  chain  as  an 
important  p-ehistOi'ic  boundary  line.  While  various 
speculations,  more  or  less  reasonable,  may  be  based 
on  this  fact,  there  is  one  deduction  which  it  would 
seem  may  be  fairly  drawn  therefrom.  This  is,  that 
the  mound-build  jrs  did  not  enter  their  territory  from 
tlie  Atlantic  coast ;  or  to  be  on  still  safer  groimd,  that 
the  custom  of  building  mounds  was  not  derived  from 
that  direction.  Nevertheless,  the  culture  and  type 
zones,  so  far  as  they  have  any  bearing  on  the  question 
of  prehistoric  migration,  appear  to  indicate  that  tliis 
was  along  east  and  west  lines.  The  chief  stone-grave 
area  extends  from  southern  Illinois  to  northern 
Georgia;  it  is  almost  exclusively  along  the  same  lino 
that  the  few  stone  images  and  certain  types  of  copper 
articles  have  boon  discovered ;  and  certain  types  of 
mounds  and  pipes  have  been  found  chiefly  along  a 
line  extending  from  eastern  Iowa  through  Ohio  and 
West  Virgini.'i  to  eastern  Tennessee  and  western  North 
Carolina.  The  cliief  pottery  belt  has  already  been 
mentioned  ;  and  wliat  may  be  appropriately  termed 
tlie  Huron-Iroquois  bolt  extends  from  the  lower  St. 
liawrence  river  to  Lake  Michigan.  In  the  Gulf  States 
there  is  a  strong  general  resemblance  of  typos  from 
the  Mississippi  river  to  South  Carolina.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  offigy  mounds   are  confined  almost  exclu- 


Diirntion  of  the  Moiriul-Bnilding  Age. 


V 


ou 


sively  to  the  region  west  of  Lake  Michigan  ;  and  tlie 
section  void  of  mounds,  as  already  stated,  lies  to  the 
east  of  the  Alleghany  range. 

There  are,  however,  some  features  which  appear  to 
indicate  erratic  movements  or  the  breaking  awa^  jf 
minor  groups  from  the  main  bodies.  Tlio  explora- 
tions made  by  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  in  the  si.  d 
mounds  of  north-eastern  Florida  have  broUj^m  io 
light  a  number  of  types  which  seem  to  show  int.  r- 
course  of  the  builders  with  the  authors  of  the  i  ir  Is 
and  stone-graves  of  middle  Tennessee,  though  no 
stone-graves  are  found  in  the  Florida  region.  Two 
or  three  effigies  occur  in  Ohio  and  two  in  Georgia  ; 
and  two  or  three  tribes  of  the  Siouan  stock  formei-ly 
resided  in  North  and  South  Carolina.  The  buttressed 
walls  of  the  inclosures  in  south-w^estern  Indiana  and 
west  Tennessee  heretofore  referred  to,  of  similar 
type  to  those  of  Aztalan,  Wisconsin,  suggest  another 
wandering  branch  of  the  Wisconsin  mound-builders, 
probably  Siouan.  Another  fact  to  be  noticed  in  this 
connection  is,  that  the  types  of  eastern  Arkansas, 
north  of  the  mouth  of  Arkansas  river,  appear  to  be 
wholly  disconnected  from  those  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Mississippi  opposite  thereto.  The  pottery,  as  before 
stated,  connects  with  the  middle  Tennessee  types  by 
way  of  south-eastern  Missouri  and  southern  Illinois, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  connection  between  the  op- 
posite sides  of  the  river  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio 
to  the  luCMl'p  of  the  Arkansas  river.  But  this  rule 
does  not  appear  to  apply  to  the  section  south  of  the 
latter,  as  there  is  some  evidence  here  of  ancient 
intercourse  in  the  resemblance  seen  in  some  of  the 
types. 


:i^ 


loG  St  inly  of  North  Amcrirati  Archucologij. 


c 


Althougli  tho  momimonts  indicate,  to  some  extent, 
movonu'iits  of  jjopulation,  yet  until  those  of  a  par- 
ticular class  or  locality  can  be  assigned  with  reason- 
able certainty  to  a  particular  stock  or  tribe,  they  aid 
but  little  in  tracing  these  movements.  M()V(>over,  it 
is  presumable  that  during  the  mound-building  age, 
the  mound-building  tril)es  were  generally  sedentary. 

The  physical  conditions  of  the  section  i)i'esent  no 
featur(^s  calculated  to  d(>termine  the  chief  line  or 
lines  of  migration.  Th(>  great  rivers  have  been  re- 
ferred to  as  mai'king  tlu^se  lines,  but,  as  has  been 
shown,  xho  mound  testimony  does  not  favor  this  theory, 
at  least  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio,  and  the  rivers  south  of  tho  lakes,  except  per- 
liaps  the  Wisconsin.  The  St.  Lawrence  and  some  of 
the  streams  north  of  the  Inkes  were  apparently  lines 
of  migration.  There  are,  however,  no  ])hysical  reasons 
why  migrations  within  this  area  might  not  have  been 
in  any  direction.  It  is  true  there  arc  some  lines  which 
are  traversed  with  greater  ease  than  others,  but  there 
are  no  physical  features  sufficiently  prominent  to 
justify  us  in  basing  thereon  a  theory  of  migration. 
It  is  necessary,  tluu'cfore,  to  turn  to  language,  tra- 
ditions, customs  and  folk-lore  in  any  attempt  to  trace 
the  migrations  of  tribes  which  brought  them  to  their 
historic  seats.  Several  theories  have  been  advanced 
as  to  the  point  or  points  of  original  entry,  or  direction 
whence  tho  immigrants  came,  but,  as  all  except  two 
seem  to  have  been  abandoned,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
allude  to  these.  One  of  them,  which  is  advocated  by 
some  of  our  leading  ethnologists  and  linguists,  is  that 
the  initial  jxnnt  was  on  or  near  the  north  Atlantic 
coast,  and  the  goncral  mov«Mnent  west  an<l  south.      As 


Duration  III'  flit'  Moiiinl-Iiiiihliiiij  Age 


V 


ni 


to 
by 

hat 
itic 

As 


the  autlior  has  ^iven  liis  reasons  olsewliere  (American 
Anti(iuarian,  1.SU6)  for  rejecting  this  theory,  they  will 
not  be  repeated  here.  That  opinion  wliicli  has  gener- 
ally prevailed  in  the  past,  and  is  still  maintained  by  a ' 
hirge  ])ortion  of  the  students  of  the  present  day,  is 
that  the  movement  has  been  mainly  from  the  north- 
west toward  the  south,  south-east  and  east. 

So  far  as  linguistic  and  traditional  evidence  can  be 
traced,  it  leads  to  the  conch ision  that  the  general 
movement,  in  i)rehistoric  times,  of  the  stocks  in  the 
United  States,  was  toward  the  south  and  the  south- 
cast.  The  body  of  the  Siouan  stock  was  about  the 
headwaters  of  the  Mississippi  river,  whih;  its  oirshoots 
were  in  Arkansas,  southern  Mississippi  and  the  w(>st- 
ern  part  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  the  latter  group 
claiming  to  have  migrated  from  the  north-west.  The 
Iro(pioin  family  was  located,  as  above  stated,  around 
Lake  Ontario,  one  offshoot  was  in  south-eastern  Vir- 
ginia, and  another,  the  Cherokees,  about  the  head- 
waters of  Tennessee  river.  The  Latter  tribe,  as  ap- 
pears from  traditional  and  other  evidence,  formerly 
lived  about  the  upper  Ohio  and  were  mound-builders. 
That  the  widely  separated  localities  of  these  outlying 
bodies,  from  the  stocks  to  which  they  belong,  are 
proofs  of  migration,  can  not  be  denied,  and  that  tlie 
direction  of  the  movements  was  south  and  south-east, 
seems  apparent,  from  the  fact  that  the  offshoots  are 
all  south  of  the  main  bodies. 

Whatever  theory  is  adopted,  it  must  have  in  the 
background  a  door  of  possible  entry  leading  to  a  source 
of  supply  (i.  e.  population) .  The  theory  of  an  eastern 
origin  seemingly  looks  across  the  Atlantic  to  southern 
Europe  or  northern  Africa,  and  is  so  stated  by  some 


«*-• 


158  Stiidi/  nf  SoHh  American  Archaeology. 


advocates.  The  doorway  oprn  to  the  other  theory, 
which  the  autlior  believes  to  be  the  correct  one,  will 
become  apparent  in  ilio  sequel.  As  the  writer  lias 
given  elsewhere  (American  Antiquarian,  ISlHi-T)  a 
somewhat  full  statement  of  the  supposed  prehistoric 
movements  of  population  in  the  Atlantic  division,  a 
brief  summary  only  will  be  presented  here. 

The  movements  of  the  tribes  of  the  Algonquian 
family  appear  to  have  been  toward  the  south,  south- 
east and  east,  until  the  rising  powder  of  the  Iroquois 
and  the  planting  of  European  colonies  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  caused  a  recoil  and  return  toward  the 
west.  This  historic  westward  movement  and  certain 
traditions  referring  to  limited  westward  movements 
west  of  Lake  Huron,  appear  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
theory  of  an  eastern  origin.  The  initial  point  of  the 
Algonquian  movement  will  appear,  from  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  subject,  to  have  been  in  the  area 
north  and  north-west  of  Lake  Superior. 

Mr.  Gallatin,  who  studied  the  languages  of  the 
family  with  special  care,  expresses  the  opinion  in  his 
"Synopsis  of  the  Indian  Tribes,"  that  the  northern 
Algonquins,  those  dwelling  north  of  the  lakes,  were 
the  original  stock.  Dr.  Horatio  Hale,  though  main- 
taining a  general  movement  westward  and  southward, 
says  in  his  "Indian  Migrations"  (American  Anti- 
quarian, v.),  "The  country  from  which  the  Lenape 
[Delawares]  migrated  was  Shiuaki,  'the  land  of  fir 
trees,'  not  in  the  west,  but  in  the  far  north,  evidently 
the  woody  region  north  of  Lake  Superior,"  Dr. 
Brinton  ("Lenape  and  their  Legends"),  remarks  as 
follows  in  regard  to  the  tribal  relations:  "Which  of 
them  [the  dialects]  had  preserved  the  ancient  forms 


I)iir(ttl(ni  of  till'  Mnuntl-Iiiiihliiuj  .lf/(. 


I.V.) 


as 

of 

•nis 


most  closely,  it  may  hr  jji'dnaturo  to  dcfido  positively, 
hut  tho  tendency  of  modern  studies  has  heen  to  assign 
that  place  to  the  Crce,  the  northernmost  tf  all." 

The  author  has  given  in  the  ])apers  al)ove  referred 
to  what  he  believes  are  sufficient  reasons  for  conclud- 
ing that  tho  L(Miape  migration,  which  i)rol)al)ly  in- 
cluded other  tribes  than  the  Delaware,  crossed  to  the 
south  side  of  the  lakes  in  tho  region  of  Micliiliinack- 
inac,  entering  the  southern  Michigan  peninsula.  Here, 
after  a  long  halt,  they  divided,  a  jDart,  probably  the 
Shawnees,  going  soutli  •  another,  possibly  the  Miamis, 
remaining  in  southern  Michigan  ;  tho  rest  (the  ^^  la- 
wares,  Nanticokes,  etc.)  moving  onward  towa.vi  the 
Atlantic  coast.  That  the  Ojibwas,  who  were  first 
heard  of  by  Europeans  as  living  in  the  vicinity  of  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  formerly  resided  north  of  Lake  Superior 
near  the  Crees,  with  whom  they  are  closely  related 
linguistically,  is  more  tlian  ])robable.  As  tradition 
makes  the  Ottawas  and  Pottawotomis  originally  one 
with  the  Ojibwas,  they  must  have  come  from  the  same 
quarter.  The  Mascoutens  entered  the  southern  Mich- 
igan peninsula  at  its  northern  point  and  passed  around 
the  lake  into  Wisconsin.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes,  mov- 
ing dowr  the  eastern  shores  of  Lake  Huron,  came  in 
contact  with  the  Hurons  and  were  pressed  westward 
through  southern  Michigan  into  Wisconsin. 

These  westward  movements  are  easily  explained  on 
the  theory  advanced.  Supposing  the  Algonquian 
stream  to  have  had  its  source  in  the  region  south  and 
west  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  flowing  south-east,  the  Hurou- 
Iroquois  stock,  located  along  the  northern  shores  of 
lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  would  be  a  barrier  which  would 
turn  its  southern  branch  south  and  west  precisely  as 


160 


Stmlij  of  Xoi'lU  Aiiwrivun  ArcliacoUxjy. 


tlip  movpments  of  the  tribes  appear  to  have  been,  and 
wliicli  Ave  know  were  accelerated  at  a  lat(n*  day  by  the 
attacks  of  the  Iroquois.  Tlie  nortliern  bi'anch  would 
])ass  on  toward  the  east  along  the  Ottawa  and  other 
streams.  The  Nascapee  of  Labrador,  the  most  north- 
eastern tribe  of  the  family,  claim  by  their  traditions 
to  have  migrated  from  the  west  coast  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  the  close  linguistic  relation  of  the  Montaonais 
to  the  Crees  and  Ojibwas  indicates  that  they  came 
from  the  same  region.  Dr.  Ilayden  and  G.  B.  Grin- 
nel  agree  in  locating  the  former  homo  of  the  Siksika 
(Bhu-kfeet)  far  north  in  British  America,  the  latter, 
with  a  considerable  array  of  evidence,  as  far  north  as 
the  Lesser  Slave  Lake.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that 
the  movements  point  to  the  region  along  the  southern 
and  western  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay  as  the  original 
home  of  the  familv. 

Some  of  the  traditions,  it  is  true,  allude  to  the  tidal 
sea,  but  when  these  are  carefully  studied  it  will  be 
seen  that  they  apply  more  readily  to  Hudson's  Bay 
than  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  or  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
For  example,  it  is  stated  in  the  Lenapt^  Legend  (Walam 
Olum)  that  in  leaving  the  sea  and  going  toward  the 
east  or  south-east  (as  the  north  is  spoken  of  as  in  the 
rear),  they  moved  up  the  streams  in  their  canoes. 
This  will  apply  correctly  to  Hudson's  Bay,  but  by  no 
jiossible  straining  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  That  New 
England  and  the  Atlantic  coast  regions  south  to  Vir- 
ginia were  peopled  from  the  Delaware  group  is  the 
prevailing  opinion  of  ethnologists  of  the  present  day. 

Little  can  be  said  in  regai'd  to  the  prehistoric  move- 
ments of  the  Ti'oquoian  tribes.  That  the  offshoots  in 
Cai'olina  and  Virginia  came  from  the  north  is  con- 


Duration  of  the  MotDid-Biiilding  Age. 


IGl 


the 
iiy. 


ceded.  It  is  .also  conceded  tliat  tlie  entire  family,  ex- 
clusive of  tliese  olFshoots,  resided  in  former  times 
north  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  weight  of  evidence 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  preceded  the  Algon- 
(juins  in  the  occupancy  of  the  eastern  region.  If  the 
conclusion  reached  in  regard  to  the  movements  of  the 
Algon(iuins  is  accepted,  it  would  seem  reasonable  to 
assume  that  the  Iroquois  moved  in  the  same  general 
direction.  Moreover,  if  the  place  where  they  were 
i'ncountercd  by  the  Lenape  was  at  the  west  end  of 
Lake  Erie,  as  seems  probable  from  the  tradition  of  the 
latter,  this  would  indicate  that  the  Hurons  were,  at 
this  early  date,  immediately  east  of  Detroit  river.  Dr. 
Daniel  Wilson,  basing  his  conclusion  on  a  tradition 
that  they  formerly  dwelt  by  the  side  of  the  sea,  locates 
this  primal  seat  on  the  Atlantic  coast  north-east  of  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  But  this  tradition  might 
as  well  apply  to  the  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay  as  the  At- 
lantic coast,  as  the  dim  remembrance  of  having  dwelt 
by  the  side  of  the  sea  would  naturally  have  been  trans- 
ferred by  them,  after  long  residence  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  a  knowledge  of  the  ocean,  to  its  shore.  It 
is  significant  that  Brownell,  whom  he  quotes,  says  : 
"Some  fanciful  tales  of  a  supernatural  origin  from 
the  heart  of  a  mountain  ;  a  migration  to  the  eastern 
seaboard  ;  and  of  a  subsequent  return  to  the  country 
of  the  lakes  and  rivers,  where  they  finally  settled, 
comprise  most  that  is  noticeable  in  the  tradition'^  of 
the  Six  Nations  prior  to  the  ccmfederation."  This 
tradition  appears  to  furmsh  t]w  key  to  the  problem, 
and  indicat(\s  a  western  origin. 

The  opinion  advanced  by  some  ethnologists  that  the 
H 


2 


Hi'I 


Stud;/  itf  Sortli  Annrican  Archactiloftj/. 


V 

f>  - 

a: 

1^: 


movements  of  the  Siouan  tribes  in  preliistoric  times 
liave  been  from  tlie  south-east  to  the  north-west  is 
based  chiefly  on  the  archaic  character  of  the  dialects 
of  tlie  eastern  tribes  (Tutelo,  Saponi  and  Catawba) 
and  theory  of  general  westward  movements.  How- 
ever, it  is  admitted  that  the  Winnebago  dialect 
stands  in  relation  to  the  Tutelo  as  the  Mohawk  to 
tlio  Huron  in  tlie  lro(iuoian  family.  Tlie  opinion, 
however,  that  these  southern  tribes  are  ott'shoots 
from  the  main  body  of  the  family  group  in  the  north- 
west seems  to  be  too  w'ell  grounded  to  be  overturned 
by  any  evidence  or  arguments  which  liave,  as  yet, 
been  presented. 

It  is  well  known  that  tlie  great  body  of  the  family  at 
the  earliest  notice  of  them  obtained  by  Europeans  was 
located  in  the  north-west  chiefly  about  the  headwaters 
of  tlie  Mississippi.  The  tradition  of  the  south-eastern 
tribes,  as  giv.Mi  by  Lederer  and  others,  is  that  they 
came  from  the  north-west.  Gallatin  says  that  the 
tradition  (tf  the  Towas,  Missouris,  Otos,  Omahas  and 
Poncas  (Siouan  tribes)  is,  "that,  at  a  distant  epoch, 
they,  together  with  tlu;  Winnebagoes,  came  from  the 
north  ;  that  the  Winnebagoes  stopped  on  the  banks  of 
Lake  Michigan  while  they  continued  their  cour.-^o 
southerly,  crossed  the  Mississippi,  and  oc('ui)ied  the 
scats  in  which  they  Avere  found  by  the  luiropc^ans." 
Most  of  the  south-western  tribes  claim  that  they  are  oH- 
shoots  from  t'le  Winnebagos,  a  claim  which  Dr.  Hale 
says  Mr.  Dorscy  has  shown  by  linguistic  evidence  to 
be  correct.  The  general  trend,  therefore,  of  the  evi- 
dence is  that  the  place  of  dispersion  was  in  the  north- 
west, and  that  the  course  of  migration  has  boon  south 
and  south-east.     The  tradition  of  the  lowas  refers  to 


Duration  of  the  Moiuid-BnildiiKj  Aijr. 


163 


crossing  somo  water  in  tlio  region  of  the  gi'eat  lakes 
in  their  journey  from  the  north-east.  The  Winne- 
bagos,  accoi-ding  to  Schoolcraft,  chiini  to  hare  come 
from  some  point  north  of  the  lakes,  apparently  around 
the  east  end  of  Lake  Superior.  It  would  seem  prob- 
able from  their  relation  to  the  Sioux  and  Assiniboins 
of  tlie  north-westeru  plains  that  all  had  come  from 
some  locality  north  of  Lake  Superior  and  west  of 
Hudson's  Bay,  the  western  tribes  moving  south 
ai-ound  the  west  end  of  tlie  lake  anc  the  Winnebagos 
f^nd  their  offshoots  around  the  east  end.  The  Siouan 
migrations  were  probably  in  advance  of  those  of  the 
Algonquins,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  Tutelo  and 
other  south-eastern  tribes  separated  from  the  Winne- 
bago group  in  the  region  of  Michilimackinac  and 
passed  south  through  Michigan  and  Ohio. 

Although  there  are  traditions  in  regard  to  the  mi- 
grations of  the  Muskhogean  tribes,  we  learn  but  little 
therefrom  except  the  fact  or  belief  that  they  came 
from  some  place  in  the  west.  On  this  point  there  are 
no  dissenting  views ;  but  from  what  place  or  region 
in  the  west  is  an  unanswered  question.  That  they 
and  other  tribes  of  the  Gulf  States  liad  long  resided 
in  that  section  wlien  first  encountered  by  Europeans, 
is  indicated  by  the  numerous  monuments  scattered 
over  the  south,  which,  as  the  evidence  shows,  are  at- 
ti'ibutal)le  to  these  aborigines.  According  to  Mr. 
(iatschet,  ivnhali,  the  Hitchiti  word  for  "south" 
(which  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  ('reek  t(>rm. 


int 


hall) 


si<j:ni 


fied 


oriixma 


iiy 


lown-stream. 


This 


would  seem  to  imply  that  it  hail  been  adopted  from 
the  course  of  the  Mississi])|)i  and  the  rivers  east  of 
that  stream.     It  is  not  pi'obable  that  a  term  with  this 


164 


St  11(1 1/ (if  Xortli  Anicn'cmi  ArcliacoJo(ji/. 


a:: 


signifu'iitioii  would  liavo    boon   adoptod   for   "south" 
wliilo  n^siding  wost  of  tlio  Mississippi. 

A  notion  has  ]irovailod,  to  a  considorablo  I'xtont, 
that  the  huiI(l(M"s  of  tlie  ])rinoipal  oartlnvorks  of  Ohio 
and  Kentucky  moved  soutli,  and  wore  incorporat^'d 
into  the  ti'ibes  of  the  Gidf  States  or  were  ancostors  of 
tlieso  trib(>s.  A  careful  study  of  tlie  Ohio  works, 
their  mode  of  construction  and  tlioir  contents,  does 
not  conlirin  this  tlieory  ;  in  fact,  the  evidence  'Awy 
furnisli  is  decidcnlly  against  it,  as  it  shows  that  there 
is  a  marked  distinction  between  the  mode  of  construc- 
tion and  contents  of  the  works  of  Oliio  and  tluise  of 
the  (rulf  States.  A  few  of  the  Kentucky  works  ap- 
pear to  bo  of  the  same  types  as  some  of  those  in  the 
south  ;  on  tlie  contrary,  however,  those  of  Tennessee 
are  essentially  different,  if  we  except  some  found 
along  the  Savannah  river.  We  therefore  derive  little 
aid  on  this  question  from  lin  antiquities.  That  the 
Muskhogees  moved  from  th'  i. ortli,  southward,  is  quite 
probabl(>,  in  fact  ma}'  be  assumed,  and  that  they  pre- 
ceded the  other  stocks,  which  we  have  mentioned,  in  the 
occupancy  of  the  district,  may  be  considered  as  evident. 
Whether  they  moved  southward  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Mississippi  or  west  of  it,  can  not  be  decided  ;  how- 
ever, the  weight  of  evidence  and  authorities  appears 
to  be  in  favor  of  the  west  side. 

Perhaps  we  are  not  advancing  too  far  into  the  field 
of  conjecture  in  assuming  with  Morgan  a  possible  re- 
lation of  some  kind,  at  a  very  distant  date,  between 
tlu^  Muskliogean  and  Siouan  groups. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  Mr.  Oatschet,  without 
having  any  reference  to  this  supposition,  remarks  as 


Duration  of  the  Moinid-Bidlditig  A<i<' 


11)5 


ap- 

tho 


luut 
;s  as 


follows  in  liis  work  on  iho  "Migration  Legend  of  the 
Creeks"  : 

"One  of  the  most  aiicient  fcatui-os  of  an  fnrlian 
language  is  reduplication  for  inHectitrm.il  purposes. 
In  this  we  observe  a  thorough  diH'eirrnce  between 
Maskoki  and  the  langujiges  wi'st  o{  th»  Ml- !ssij.j>i 
river.  In  Maskoki,  tlie  >«'-<)nd  sxj'able  i*  the  >-»i-Ui}>Ji- 
cated  one  in  adjectives  and  v<u'bs-  v<^»>stof  tlie  riaer, 
at  least  in  Tonica,  A'Jik.u^a,  and  T-nkawe,  r  w  tiuB 
lirst  one.  Linguists  .il)le  tv>  apprfiii^e  this  riirmiw- 
stance  fully,  will  not  d»*ny  tiait  it  iti  wf  ^reat  wfis:'»ir  in 
separating  certain  clas+^s  of  lingui«itic  families  tfir»m 
each  other,  and  consequently,  to  assign  tliem  diff<  rent 
areas  in  primordial  epochs.  The  Sahaptin  and  the 
Dakotan  exc(>])ted,  no  other  linguistic  family  of  North 
America  is  known  to  me  which  reduplicates  for  inflec- 
tional (not  for  derivational)  purposes  in  the  same 
manner  as  Maskoki."' 

These,  it  is  true,  are  but  slight  pointer?":  rtf'verthe- 
less,  as  they  dro|)  into  place  with  other  indirat'  is, 
we  ai'e  justitied  in  adoi)ting  this  supj)osifion  itil 
some  sutlicient  r(>ason   for  abandoning  it  is  pr^   ■  lued. 

It  has  been  suggested  in  the  past  by  one  <.i'  two 
authorities,  although  tlu^  idea  has  not  receivcil  any 
modern  supixirt,  that  the  ancestors  of  the  1  'nwnun 
and  Sioiuui  families  were  at  a  very  rem".*  date 
united,  oi-  in  other  words,  that  the  two  gi'oui>^  had 
the  same  t)rigin. 

It  would  seem  from  what  has  b(>en  ]ir(>sented,  that 
the  prehistoric  migrations  of  th(^  difhM'eiu  stocks,  if 
they  have  IxM-n  tract'd  with  reasonable  eertainry,  point 
to  a  primitive  home  north  of  I;ak(>  SujicM'ior 

There  is  another  fact  which   appeal'^  to  have  some 


ICiil 


stud  1/  of  S'artli  A  iiiirictni  Arcltmoloijii . 


% 


IxNiriiii;'  on  tli(>  (iiicslion  of  I  lie  ^^'Iici'mI  coursj'  of  iniurji- 
liou  ill  this  section.  'I'iiis  is  tlic  disi  i'il>iili«Mi  of  copperas 
n'v»';il('(l  l)v  mound  cxiilofiilioiis.  A!ti»oii<;li  tlie  vriltT 
is  indint'd  to  bt'Iicvc  lliiit  tnorc  of  tin*  copi.ci"  found  in 
mounds  was  derived  fi'om  foieij'n  souices  thiu\  is  }j;en- 
erally  supjiosed,  it  is  inivcrtlieless  ceriiiin  that  tlio 
lari^er  jioi-tion  was  obtained  frtnn  <li(>  mines  of  tlio 
Lake  ^^npevior  fe«:;ion.  Numerous  sprcimens  from 
this  source  liav(>  been  found  in  all  parts  of  the  mound 
area,  even  to  the  extreme  i>ast  and  south-east.  It  is 
true  that  tlu>  use  of  this  metal  would,  aft(>r  its  discov- 
ery, i;"radually  travel  back  alonj^  the  line,  thouj^h  the 
migration  was  westward  ;  ye;  its  early  distribution,  as 
shown  by  its  presence  in  the  oldest  mounds,  would  in- 
dicat(>  a  loui^  ac(iuainlaiice  with  tin-  soui'i'(!  of  su|)ply. 
And  this  ac(|uaintance  would  have  been  much  earlier 
if  the  miu'raiion  was  from  the  north-west  than  if  it 
had  been  from  the  east.  !  I'  llie  tribes  in  the  north- 
W(>si  canii-  fri>m  the  east,  the  movement  would  iiave 
been  north-west  wai'.l ,  ;:;>d,  after  th(>  discovery  of  the 
copper  miiKvs  of  the  Lake  Superior  rt\<^ion,  tlu^  knowl- 
edge of  it  and  the  custom  of  usiiiif  it  would  liavt'  been 
t'arried  onward  by  the  mi^raiinjj;  tribes.  It  appears, 
liowiviM'.  iliat  ])reci>e!y  the  contrary  is  the  fact.  We 
leap!',  from  *'Nott>s  on  the  Western  j)ene,"  by  Rev.  A. 
(i.  M«.)ru'e,  V  :m>  has  been  for  many  y(>ars  a  mission- 
ar\'  to  lual  peoph*  .i.id  is  well  accpiainted  with  their 
customs  aiui  t  i-aditi'.ns,  thai  although  they  madt>  some 
use  o(  opper  it!  jwehisioric  times,  \:  appears  from 
their  tractions  iha*  a  was  brouii^ht  from  tlu>  north- 
western coast. 

Rev.  K.    Petitot  (  Rapport    succinct   sur  la   (ieoeii'ie 
ties  valles  de  T Athabascan)  savs  :   "Refore  th(>  arrival 


IhinilHHi  of  llif  Minniil-lliiild iiKj  .1'// 


Uu 


f 
A. 
)n- 
'ii' 

WW 

mi 

h- 

l\v 

■al 


ol"  iMiropcans  in  the  valley  of  tlic  Mackcii/ic,  the 
'^'('!l<)\v-l\Mivt's'  and  tlic  '  I  )(»;j;-ril»s'  wt'i-c  aci|iiaiiil('(l 
willi  the  vse  of  the  native  copper,  wliicli  lliey  IoimkI 
on  the  horih'i's  ol'  the  ('opper-niin(\  river.  Ol'  lliis 
they  nianurju'liired  knives,  from  wiiicii  tliey  received 
llu'ir  name.  They  niad(^  use  at  th(^  sanut  time;  of  pol- 
ished stone.  Thei'et'oi-e  we  ha,v<i  lien!  tlu^  contempo- 
raneity of  ])olished  stone  and  l)ronze.  The  'Hares' 
(IN'aii\-de-liievre) ,  <»ii  their  part,  who  were  innorjint 
of  the  use  of  co])per  and  did  not,  j^ive  themselves  the 
tnuible  to  polish  their  inst  ruinents  of  stone,  had  dis- 
covered lheleni;th  of  the  Macl<enzi(^  to  tin;  mouth  of 
i\u\  river  L'e  ota-hi  (U'iin."  it  appears  from  these;  facts 
that  the  copper  used  by  these  north-western  tribes  was 
not  l)rou;i;ht  from  tlu!  fjake  Sujierior  miners,  hut  from 
othei'  more  noi'thern  and  western  sources.  How  fai' 
north-west  Lak(!  Superior  copper  is  found  in  mounds 
is  unknown  to  tin;  writer.  It  is  at  any  rate  i-eason- 
able  to  suppose  it  was  in  use  among  tlio  Orccs,  hut  not 
anion;;"  any  tribe  north  and  west  of  them.  H'  tliis  be 
correct,  it  is  a  fact  havin<f  an  important  Ix'arinjj;  on 
tlu^  (piesiions  relatiiij;  to  the  trend  of  tlu;  <feneral  mi- 
<;-ratioiis.  it  indicates  that  tliest;  mitfrations  were 
.south  and  east,  insti^ad  of  north-west. 

Another  fact  wliicli  lias  a  stroni^  bearini;'  on  the 
questions  r.'latiiiu;  to  the  mijrrations  of  th(^  Si(juan 
tribes,  which  has  not  bcHMi  mentioned,  is  tliat  the 
north-westcM'n  trilx's  of  the  family,  or  at  least  most  of 
Ihem,  did  not  cultivate  the  soil,  did  not  rely  upon 
:iu;ricultur(>  for  any  |)ortion  of  their  subsistence — in 
fact,  when  first  encountered  by  the  whites,  cultivated 
no  corn.  U'  they  had  rcsich'd  in  the  Otiio  valley  be- 
fori!  <»;oin<i;   to   the    north-west ,  unless    previous    to   the 


1G8 


Studi/  of  North  Amer/caii  AirharoJofjy. 


I. 

a-: 


oultivMtioii  of  tliis  corral  in  tlio  soutliorii  soction.  llioy 
AVDuUl  iin<hmbt<'(ll_v  luivo  aciiuirrd  the  custom  and 
c'ai'ri(>(l  it  witli  tluMii.  TluM'o  is,  liowcvfv,  no  one,  it  id 
})iTsuine(i,  who  will  contiMid  that  this  inovomont  was 
at  such  an  early  date  as  to  prcccdt;  tlu'  cultivation  of 
tliis  ccfoal,  for  it  is  not  likely  they  would  have  left  this 
region,  which  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  in  the  At- 
lantic section,  except  under  strong  j^ressure  from 
(.)ther  tribes. 

Some  general  i-emarks  in  i-egard   to    Indian    migra- 
tions will  b(!  presiMited  in  a  future  chapter. 


The  Pavijic  JJU'iaiuii. 


1C)9 


n"d 
i.s 

/as 
of 

his 

(jin 
ra- 


GHAPTER  Xir. 


THK  i'Acikk;   division. 


This  division,  as  already  staled,  <'iul)rac«^s  all  tlu^ 
western  part  of  North  America,  including  the  whole 
of  the  great  mountain  divide  to  the  eastern  ridgo  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  the  Athapascan  territory 
on  the  north,  and  all  of  Mexico  and  Central  America 
on  the  south.  The  ethnology  and  archaeology  of  the 
intermontane  region  appear  to  he  closely  allied  hy 
most  of  their  leading  characteristics  to  those  of  the 
Pacific  slope,  while  on  the  other  hand  they  are  quite 
distinct  from  those  of  the  Atlantic  division  ;  hence 
the  ethnology  of  the  mountain  region  must,  as  would 
naturally  be  presumed,  be  included  in  the  Pacific  di- 
vision. 

If  we  take  Major  Powell's  Linginstic  Map  accom- 
panying the  7th  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Etlinology,  and  draw  a  line  from  the  inouth 
of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  extreme  lieadwaters  of  the 
upper  Saskatchewan  river,  and  another  thence  to  the 
vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay  near  the  moutli  of  Churchill 
river,  these  will  correspond  very  closely  with  the  lines 
separating  tlie  two  great  divisioi;s  as  herein  outlined, 
and  also  almost  exactly  with  the  dividing  lines  be- 
tween the  linguistic  stocks  of  the  two  great  divisions, 
if  the  Athapascan  bo  included  in  the  Pacific  group. 
This  stock  has  usually  been  considered  as  belonging 
to    tlu>    Atlantic    slope,    as   it    is    found   chiefly    east 


3. 


170 


Studi/  of  Xorth  Anicriniii  Airhueulo(ji/. 


of  tlio  Rocky  Mountain  range;  however,  as  will  ap- 
pear further  on,  all  the  afiinities  of  the  group  are  with 
the  Paeific  division,  and,  although  some  of  the  tribes 
have  long  been  in  contact  with,  or  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Algonquin  Crees  of  the  Hudson  region,  tliey  still 
oxhibit  more  of  the  north  Pacific  types  in  their  cus- 
toms, arts,  etc.,  than  of  the  Atlantic. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  designate  the  dif- 
ferent culture  areas  composing  this  division,  as  our 
knowledge  in  regard  to  the  arihaeology  of  California 
and  the  regions  north,  and  of  north-western  Mexico  is 
too  imperfect  to  justify  us  in  so  doing.  However,  as 
u  matter  of  convenience  in  making  comparisons  and 
to  avoid  repeated  explanations,  the  division  will  be 
considered  in  four  geographical  sections,  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Mexican  section,  including  most  of  Mexico 
and  all  of  Centra*  America,  embracing  the  region  of 
the  most  advanced  civilization  of  ancient  North 
America. 

2.  The  Intermontane  or  Pueblo  section,  including 
the  region  extending  from  the  western  border  of 
Texas  to  California  and  from  central  Utah  to  Zaca- 
tecas  in  Mexico.  In  other  words,  the  region  of  the 
Pueblos  (in  the  modern  sense  in  which  that  term  is 
used)  and  cliff  houses. 

3.  California. 

4.  The  Northern  section,  including  the  coast  region 
north  of  California  to  the  Eskimo  territory,  and  the 
area  occupied  by  the  northern  Athapascans  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  range. 


The  North  Pacific  Section — At}iapai<eav  Region. 

As  the  marked  varis^tions  in  several   respects  found 


77(('  l*aclfu'  IHrl.s/im. 


171 


the 
the 


)un(l 


in  the  different  parts  of  the  area  inchuled  in  tliis  sec- 
tion forbid  any  general  claH.siHcation  of  types  appli- 
cable to  the  whole  section,  brief  reference  will  be  made 
to  these  dill'erent  parts  successively. 

Turning  again  to  the  linguistic  map  above  men- 
tioned, it  will  be  seen  that  the  northern  Athapascan 
group  covers  the  larger  portion  of  Alaska  and  north- 
western British  America.  There  are  two  or  three 
small  outlying  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Oregon  and 
California,  while  the  southern  group  of  tlio  family 
spreads  over  the  larger  portion  of  Arizona  and  New 
Nh'xico,  extending  to  an  undefined  distance  into 
northern  Mexico.  The  important  bearing  which  the 
distribution  of  this  stock  has  upon  the  question  of 
prehistoric  movements  in  the  Pacific  division  will  be 
referred  to  hereafter ;  at  this  point  reference  will  be 
made  only  to  the  northern  group. 

The  area  occupied  by  this  northern  group  offers 
very  little,  in  fact  next  to  nothing,  in  the  line  of  an- 
tiquities, and  hence  has  been  entirely  overlooked  in 
works  relating  to  prehistoric  America ;  nevertheless, 
there  are  some  types  of  art  which  have  come  down 
from  prehistoric  times,  some  indications  of  former 
position  that  are  valuable  as  a  means  of  comparison. 
Neither  mounds,  fortifications,  nor  earthworks  of  any 
kind  are  found  in  this  region,  and  but  few  artefacts 
belonging  to  a  former  age  have  been  discovered. 

From  Rev.  A.  G.  Morice,  to  whom  we  have 
heretofore  more  than  once  referred,  who  has  given 
special  attention  to  their  language  and  customs,  we 
learn  the  following  facts:  Tobacco  and  the  use  of 
the  pipe  were  unknown  to  them  until  about  1792. 
The  earliest  form  of  their  pipe  appears  to  have  been 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY.  14580 

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172  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology, 


[■■■ 


obtained  from  their  neighbors  immediately  south. 
Most  of  their  stone  implements,  some  of  which  were 
still  in  use  a  century  ago,  were  comparatively  rude 
and  but  partly  polished.  Some  of  the  tribes,  how- 
ever, had  made  more  advance  in  this  respect  than 
others,  yet  their  finest  specimens  were  obtained  by 
barter  from  the  seacoast  Indians.  Their  so-called 
stone  axes — or  more  correctly,  celts — when  hafted, 
were  really  adzes,  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  7,  which 
could  not  be  used  in  cutting  wood  crosswise.  Tliere 
seems  to  be  ?',  strong  similarity  in  the  use  of  tliis  im- 
plement among  the  Dene  (as  the  northern  Atliapas- 
cans  will  be  designated  here — this,  according  to 
Morice,  being  the  correct  native  name  of  the  i^eople) 
to  its  use  among  Eskimos,  especially  those  Eskimos  in 
the  vicinity  of  Point  Barrow.  Mr.  Murdoch  (9th 
Annual  Report  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology)  says  : 
"Though  axes  and  hatchets  are  frequently  ootained 
(by  the  Eskimos)  by  trading,  they  are  never  used  as 
such,  but  the  head  is  removed  and  rehafted  so  as  to 
make  an  adze  of  it." 

The  other  stone  implements,  whicli  consist  almost 
wholly  of  arrow  and  spear  points,  scrapers,  and 
knives,  present  no  marked  peculiarities.  A  few 
pestles  have  been  found,  also  a  kind  of  stone  war  club. 
(Fig.  67.)  Rev.  Morice,  from  whose  work  our  figure 
has  been  copied,  says  that,  although  the  specimen 
figured  has  a  portion  of  the  larger  end  broken  off,  the 
outline  has  been  drawn  from  comparison  with  other 
specimens.  To  the  knob  at  the  small  end  was 
fastened  a  buckskin  line  which  being  firmly  wound 
around  the  wrist  prevented  loss  of  the  instrument  in 
battle.     This  find  is  at  least  interesting  from  the  fact 


The  Pacific  Division.  173 

that   another  implement  similar  in   form,  which   ap- 
pears to  have  been  used  for  a  similar  purpose,  was 
discovered  some  years  ago  in  Bent  county,  Colorado 
This  specimen  (Fig.  68),  according  to  the  finder,  Mr 


Fig,  67.    Dend  stone 
war-olub. 


Fig.  68.    Stone  war- 
club,  Colorado. 


J.   B.   Aldrich,  quartermaster  in    the    United    States 
army,  was  dug  out  of  a  mound  situated  just  south 
of  the  Arkansas  river  in  Bent  county,  south-eastern 
Colorado.     He  says  :     "It  was  the  theory  of  Kit  Car- 
son, who  accompanied  the  command,  tliat  it  had  been 
secreted  there  by  some  of  the  Comanche  or  Apache 
In(Hans,  who  then  occupied  the  territory.     The  hole 
was  filled  with  the  remnants  of  the  loop  made  of 
vegetable  fiber."     (The  Apaches,  as  has  been  stated 
are  an  offshoot  of  the  Athapascans.)     Its  marked  re- 
semblance  to    the    traditional   weapon   of    the   New 
Zealanders,    known   as   Patu-patu,    was    noticed    and 
mentioned   by   tlie    Smithsonian    cataloguer.      How- 
ever, Judge  Wickersham,  who  is  familiar  with  the 
antiquities   and   art    of    the    north-west  coast,    says 
weapons  of  this  type  were  common  from  Alaska  to 


174 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


carving- 


p«»n 


I. 

si 


southern    Oregon.      The    most    serviceable 

knives  among  the  prehistoric  Dene  were  beaver  teeth 

sharpened  by  rubbing  on  a  stone. 

Morice  thinks  the  prehistoric  Dene  made  but  scant 
use  of  copper,  though  it  was  not  unknown  to  them. 
Petitot  says  that,  previous  to  the  arrival  of  Europeans 
in  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie,  two  of  the  tribes — the 
Yellow  Knives  and  Dog-Ribs — made  use  of  native 
copper  which  they  obtained  along  Coppermine  river. 
However,  some  of  the  copper  articles  in  use,  or  copper 
out  of  which  they  were  formed,  appears  to  have  been 
obtained  from  the  coast  Indians.  As  might  be  in- 
ferred from  their  extreme  northern  position,  pottery 
and  clay  articles  were  unknown  to  them,  their  vessels 
being  made  of  the  bark  of  trees. 

Brief  as  this  notice  is  of  the  antiquities  of  this  re- 
gion, it  covers  about  all  that  can  be  said  in  general 
terms  regarding  them.  So  far  as  comparison  can  be 
made  between  the  customs,  arts  and  beliefs  of  the 
Dene  and  surrounding  peoples,  they  appear  to  be 
most  nearly  related  to  those  of  the  coast  tribes.  The 
northern  Dene  were  an  inartistic  people,  having  made 
less  advance  in  this  respect  than  the  Eskimo  north  of 
them  and  less  than  the  tribes  west  or  south.  Their 
chief  importance  in  the  study  of  prehistoric  North 
America  is  the  evidence  furnished  by  their  distribu- 
tion., of  the  lines  and  general  course  of  migrations  in 
the  Pacific  division. 

It  was  a  great  triumph  of  linguistic  science  when  it 
made  known  to  the  world  that  the  Apaches  of  Arizona 
and  northern  Mexico,  the  Hupas  of  California,  the 
Navajos  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  certain  small 
tribes  on  the  coast  of  Oregon,  and  the  Lipans  near  the 


The  Pacific  Division. 


175 


mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  are  relatives  of  the  northern 
Dene  and  parts  of  the  great  Athapascan  stock,  who 
had,  in  prehistoric  times,  made  their  way  soutiiward 
to  the  regions  they  are  found  inhabiting. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  Mr,  Gatschet  is  correct  in 
tracing  the  route  of  these  two  detached  portions  of  the 
great  family  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains. 
"This  southern  branch  of  the  Tinne  race,"  he  re- 
marks, "detached  itself  in  early  ages  from  the  Chip- 
ewayans,  or  from  such  other  ti'ibe  in  their  vicinity 
to  which  the  dialectic  affinities  of  both  may  direct  us 
after  a  close  investigation.  They  followed  the  buffalo 
herds  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moimtain 
ridge  to  the  Pecos  river,  and  then  took  possession  of 
the  arid  regions  along  the  upper  and  lower  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Gila  river."  Their  former  positions,  so  far 
as  these  have  been  ascertained,  appear  to  correspond 
with  this  supposition.  Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge,  who  has 
studied  the  subject,  is  inclined  to  believe  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Navajos  in  Arizona  and  western  New 
Mexico  is  a  comparatively  recent  event,  antedating 
but  little,  if  any,  the  first  appearance  of  the  Spaniards 
in  that  region. 

It  is  reasonably  certain  that  some  of  the  offshoots 
from  this  family  which  moved  south,  and  finally  set- 
tled in  what  is  now  Oregon,  were  turned  westward  at 
the  great  flexure  of  the  eastern  mountain-range  in 
western  Montana.  Here,  leaving  the  headwaters  of 
the  Missouri,  they  must  have  moved  westward  over 
the  easy  passes  to  the  regions  beyond  ;  or  their  pass- 
age over  the  range  must  have  been  at  some  point 
further  north.  Possibly  the  m.ore  southern  branches 
may  have  crossed  the  range  from  the  headwaters  of 


176  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


the  Missouri  and  moved  southward  through  Idaho  and 
Utah,  though  the  route  suggested  by  Mr.  Gatschet 
.appears  to  be  the  more  likely  one.  However,  be  the 
conclusion  in  regard  to  the  routes  what  it  may,  the 
evidence  that  the  movements  were  southward  and 
that  the  northern  group  represents  the  original  stock, 
and  the  northern  position  the  original  liome,  is  not 
questioned.  Another  imi^ortant  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  from  these  facts  is,  that  the  broad,  treeless 
phiins  were  a  greater  barrier  to  east  and  west  migra- 
tions than  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  ranges.  It  is, 
perhaps,  legitimate  to  conclude  that  the  route  to  the 
south-east  was  barred  by  prior  occupants.  It  is  ad- 
mitted by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  and  affirmed  by 
other  explorers,  that  the  Dene  entered  their  known 
habitat  from  some  section  more  to  the  north-west,  ap- 
parently on  or  near  the  Pacific  coast,  and  were  in 
part  looked  upon  as  comparative  strangers  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  region  occupied  by  them. 

The  North  Pacific  CoaM. 

The  physical  conditions  of  the  northern  coast  re- 
gion, which  must  have  had  some  influence  in  shaping 
the  customs,  beliefs  and  arts  of  the  people,  are 
widely  different  from  those  of  the  section  inhabited 
by  the  cliff-dwellers,  and  also  of  California — in  fact, 
as  near  the  opposite  extreme  as  they  w^ell  could  be. 
The  territory  is  mostly  very  broken  and  mountainous, 
and  the  coast  sections  much  divided  and  deeply  in- 
dent?ed  by  bays  and  water  channels.  The  waters  are 
deep  and  the  tidal  currents  swift,  the  tide  rising 
through  a  range  of  twelve  to  twenty  feet,  making 
navigation  in  places  extremely  hazardous,  yet  travel 


The  Pacific  Division. 


177 


is  and  lias  been  mostly  by  water.  Tlio  country  is,  as 
9,  general  rule,  densely  wooded  with  spruce,  hemlock, 
white  pine,  fir,  beech,  etc.,  a  condition  well  calculated 
to  give  a  somber  hue  to  the  beliefs  and  superstitions 
of  the  people.  As  vre  should  readily  infer,  the  inti- 
mate relations  pf  the  inhabitants  with  the  sea  7S 
strongly  reflected  in  their  superstitions,  symbolic  fig- 
ures, and  art. 

The  most  advanced  culture  of  the  section  is  found 
among  the  Haidah  Indians,  who  have,  from  prehis- 
toric times,  inhabited  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands 
and  parts  of  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago.  They 
have  considerable  taste  in  tlie  use  of  colors  ;  are  ad- 
vanced in  the  art  of  drawing ;  their  carvings  in  wood 
and  slate  show  a  high  degree  of  culture  in  this  re- 
spect. Our  interest,  however,  lies  chiefly  in  the  fig- 
ures which  they  carve  in  slate  and  wood,  weave  into 
their  textile  fabrics,  paint  on  their  dwellings,  and 
tattoo  upon  their  bodies,  as  many,  perhaps  most,  of 
these  have  come  down  from  prehistoric  times,  and 
serve  to  throw  some  light  on  their  past. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  attract  attention  in  study- 
ing  these  figures  is  the  persistent  eff'ort  to  introduce, 
wherever  it  is  possible,  conventionalized  human  and 
animal  faces  and  forms.  Take,  for  example,  the  pic- 
tograph  shown  in  Fig.  G9,  Avhich  we  copy  from  the 
excellent  work  by  Phisign  A.  P.  Niblack  on  "The  Coast 
Indians  of  Southern  Alaska  and  Northern  British 
Columbia,"  representing  Tkul,  the  wind  spirit,  and 
cirrus  clouds,  explaining  the  Indians'  belief  in  the 
causes  of  the  changes  of  the  weather.  The  central 
On  tlie  right  and  left  are  his  feet,  in- 
12 


figure  is  Tkul 


178  Study  of  North  American  ArchacoJorfij. 

dicated   by   long   streaming   clouds.     Above,    at   the 
sides  of  the  head,  are  tlio  ^vings,  and  on  each  side  are 


V'v^.  1)9.    North-wt'Kt  coast  i)ictograph. 

the  different  winds,  designated  by  an  eye  and  repre- 
sented by  patches  of  cirrus  clouds. 


Fig.  70.    Ceremoniiil  dress  of  Chilkat  (ihief. 


Tlie  Pacific  Division. 


179 


t   the 
le  are 


ropre- 


Another  characteristic  custom    of   this   north-west 
coast  region  is  tlie  tendency  to  place  one  figure  on 
another  in  their  carved  totem  posts  and  paintings, 
and  even  in  their  tex- 
tile  fabrics.     Fig.   70 
represents  the  ceremo- 
nial dress  of  a  Chilkat 
chief.    Brown,  yellow, 
black    and    white    are 
the   colors    used,    and 
the   chief   figures   are 
conventional  represen- 
tations of  Hoorto,  the 
bear.     In  Fig.  71,  cop- 
ied    from     Niblack's 
Avork,    is    represented 
a     totem     post    from 
the    north-west   coast, 
and    for    comparison, 
one    (the    right-liand) 
from     New     Zealand. 
In    these,    which    are 
not   the   most  charac- 
teristic that  might  be 
selected,  we  see  clearly 
displayed   the  custom 
of     placing    symbolic 
figures  one  above  an- 


^A 


■ir^'i'-B'"'^- 


Fig.  71.    Totem  posts  of  north-west 
coast. 


other    in     the     same 
group.     In  many  of  these  posts,  as  seen  in  that  at 
the  left  of  the  figure,  we  observe  the  lolling  tongue, 
often  stretching  down  to  some  animal  figure  below. 
This  mania,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  for  introducing 


180  Stuili/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


symbolic  figures,  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  we 
find  thetn  not  only  in  the  places  indicated,  but  also 
on  their  war-clubs,  oars,  masks,  rattles,  and  even  on 
their  fish-hooks. 

The  strong  general  resemblance  which  many  of 
these  figures  bear  to  some  of  those  found  in  Central 
America  is  too  evident  to  be  overlooked,  whatever 
may  be  the  explanation  given.  The  method  of 
bounding  and  grouping  the  various  symbols  or  indi- 
vidual pictographs,  as  seen  in  Fig.  69,  reminds  us, 
in  the  general  appearance,  of  the  forms  and  method  of 
grouping  in  the  Maya  hieroglyphic  writing  and 
sculptured  inscriptions.  The  superimposed  square 
faces  on  the  ceremonial  robe  (Fig.  70)  are  almost  a 
repetition  in  idea  and  form  of  the  square,  conven- 
tionalized face  series  seen  in  the  fa(;ades  of  some  of 
the  ancient  Yucatec  structures,  as  the  Casa  de  Monjas 
(Fig.  101),  sculptered  front  at  Kabah,  etc.  The  cus- 
tom of  placing  one  figure  upon  another,  human  and 
animal,  as  in  the  totem  posts,  also  appears  to  some  e.x- 
tent  in  Central  America.  We  also  find  in  this  south- 
ern section  the  lolling  or  protruded  tongue,  a^  in  the 
Sun  Tablet  of  Palenque  and  elsewhere. 

The  resemblance  between  some  of  the  north-west 
coast  figures  and  forms  seen  on  the  pottery  and  other 
works  of  art  of  the  Province  of  Chiriqui,  as  presented 
by  Mr.  Holmes  in  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  is  remarkable.  Re- 
semblances in  other  respects  might  be  pointed  out, 
but  those  given  will  suffice  to  direct  attention  to  lines 
of  research  which  may  prove  fruitful  in  results. 
They  are  the  more  important  from  the  fact  that  they 


The  J'ai'ijic  Dirision. 


181 


are  not  found  wlien  we  compare  with  them  the  types 
of  California  and  of  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  strong  general  sim- 
ilarity between  the  figure  types  of  the  north-west 
coast  and  those  of  the  South  Pacific  islands,  a  resem- 
blance which  has  been  repeatedly  mentioned  by 
writers,  even  by  those  who  draw  no  inference  there- 
from as  to  affinity,  relationship  or  prthistoric  inter- 
course between  the  peoples  of  the  two  sections.  The 
use  of  labrets  and  masks  are  customs  of  this  north- 
west section  unquestionably  handed  down  from  pre- 
liistoric  times ;  and  although  in  use  among  tribes  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  have  some  bearing  in  the 
former  relations  of  the  people  of  this  section.  The 
custom  of  wearing  labrets  appears  to  have  been 
formerly  in  vogue  among  the  western  Eskimo  and 
southward  to  Puget  sound,  in  Mexico,  and  thence 
southward  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  and  among  a 
number  of  South  American  tribes  on  both  sides  of 
the  Andes.  What  renders  it  important  in  the  study 
of  the  prehistoric  times  of  North  America  is  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  prevailed  at  any  time 
in  the  interior  or  eastern  portion  thereof,  and  that  it 
was  never  in  vogue  in  that  portion  of  the  western 
coast  between  Columbia  river  and  Mexico.  Why  it 
should  have  spread  along  this  western  border  of  the 
northern  continent  among  widely  diverse  ethnic 
stocks,  3'et  skipping  the  California  region  as  tabooed 
territory,  is  a  question  difficult  to  answer.  In  this 
fact,  however,  we  see  another  of  those  strange  links 
apparently  connecting  the  customs  of  the  north-west 
coast  with  those  of  the  Central  American  region. 

The  use  of  masks  in  ceremonies,  dances,  etc.,  was 


182 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


•K 


L 


an  important  custom  of  the  tribes  of  the  north-west 
coast  and  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Although 
in  use  among  the  western  Eskimo,  they  were,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Bessels,  unknown  in  Greenland.  It  also 
appears  to  be  certain  that  the  use  of  masks  by  the 
people  of  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent  was  com- 
paratively rare  and  formed  no  prominent  feature  of 
their  festivals  and  ceremonies.  The  custom  of  tattoo- 
ing, Avhich  prevailed  in  certain  sections  of  the  west 
coast,  appears  also  to  have  been  a  survival  from  pre- 
historic times,  and  forms  an  item  of  evidence  in  study- 
ing the  relations  of  these  tribes. 

The  articles  of  stone  formerly  in  use  in  this  section 
are,  as  a  general  rule,  similar  to  those  of  the  Eskimo 
already  mentioned.  The  exceptions  are  the  carved 
slate  articles  of  the  Haidahs  on  the  one  side  and 
the  stone  lamps  and  pots  of  the  Eskimo  on  the  other 
side. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  mode  of  burial  only 
reaches  back  to  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Dixon  describes  the  method  followed  by  the 
Yakutat  as  follows  : 

"The  manner  in  which  they  dispose  of  their  dead 
is  very  remarkable .  They  separate  the  head  from  the 
body,  and,  wrapping  them  in  furs,  the  head  is  put 
into  a  square  box  ;  the  body  in  a  kind  of  oblong  chest. 
At  each  end  of  the  chest  which  contains  the  body,  a 
thick  pole  about  ten  feet  long  is  driven  into  the  earth 
in  a  slanting  position,  so  that  the  upper  ends  meet 
together,  and  are  very  firmly  lashed  wiili  a  kind  of 
rope  prepared  for  the  purpose.  About  two  feet  from 
the  top  of  this  arch  a  small  piece  of  timber  goes  across, 
and  is  very  neatly  fitted  to  each  pole  ;  on  this  j^iecc  of 


The  I'dn'lic  IHviHt'o)}. 


1S3 


only 
cen- 

y  the 


timber  tlio  box  which  {'oiitains  the  hoad  is  fixed  and 
very  Htrongly  socurod  with  rope  ;  the  box  is  frecjuently 
decorated  with  two  or  three  rows  of  small  shells,  and 
sometimes  teeth,  which  are  let  into  the  wood  with 
great  neatness  anil  ingenuity ;  and  as  an  additional 
ornament  is  painted  with  a  variety  of  colors,  but  the 
poles  are  uniformly  painted  white.  Sometimes  these 
poles  are  fixed  upright  in  the  earth  and  on  each  side 
the  body,  but  the  head  is  always  secured  in  the  posi- 
tion described." 

The  same  explorer  found  in  a  cave  a  square  box 
•with  a  human  head  in  it.  Instances  of  cave  burial 
are  also  mentioned  by  other  authors,  but  in  each  case 
the  box  containing  the  remains  was  present.  Van- 
couver describes  some  graves  on  Keku  Strait  as  fol- 
lows : 

"In  the  vicinity  of  these  ruins  were  many  sepul- 
chers  or  tombs,  in  which  dead  bodies  were  deposited. 
These  were  made  with  a  degree  of  neatness  seldom 
exhibited  in  the  building  of  their  habitations.  A 
wooden  frame  was  raised  about  ten  feet  from  the 
ground,  the  upper  half  of  which  was  inclosed,  and  in 
the  open  part  below  in  many,  though  not  all,  of  them 
was  placed  a  canoe.  The  flooring  of  the  upper  part 
was  about  five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  above  that 
the  sides  and  top  were  entirely  closed  in  with  boards, 
within  which  were  human  bodies  in  boxes,  wrapped 
up  in  skins  or  in  matting.  These  repositories  of  the 
dead  were  of  different  sizes,  and  some  of  them  con- 
tained more  bodies  than  the  others  ;  in  the  largest 
there  was  not  more  than  four  or  five,  lying  by  the 
side  of  each  other,  not  one  appearing  to  l)e  placed 
above  the  rest ;  they  were  generally  found   near  tlio 


:^> 


184 


StinJi/  of  Xoi'ili  American  Airlincolog}/. 


I 


L 


water  sido.  and  very  frequently  on  some  conspicuous 
])oint.  Many  of  these  sacred  monuments  appear  to 
have  been  erected  a  great  length  of  time,  and.  the 
most  ancient  of  them  had  evidently  been  repaired  and 
strengthened  by  additional  supporters  of  more  mod- 
ern workmanship.  Hence  it  would  appear  that  what- 
ever might  be  tlie  enmity  that  existed  between  the 
several  tribes  when  living,  their  remains  when  dead 
were  I'espected  and  suffered  to  I'est  (juietly  and  unmo- 
lested." 

However,  it  seems  that  cremation  was  formerly 
very  common,  probably  the  usual  mode  of  disjoosing 
of  tlie  dead,  the  ashes  being  deposited  in  boxes 
mounted  on  columns,  or  on  shelves  or  compartments 
in  the  columns. 

The  ancient  villages  indicate  a  state  of  warfare. 
Those  discovered  by  Vancouver  on  KupreanoiT  Island 
were  all  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  precipice  or  steep 
insular  rock,  rendered  by  nature  almost  inaccessible. 
These,  in  addition  to  their  natural  advantages,  were 
strongly  fortified  with  a  platform  of  wood  laid  on  the 
most  elevated  part  of  the  rock  and  projecting  so  far 
at  its  sides  as  to  overhang  the  declivity.  The  edge  of 
the  platform  was  barricaded  with  logs  of  wood  placed 
one  on  ancitier.  In  some  instances  houses  were 
placed  on  high  posts. 

Mention  is  made  of  mounds  near  Comox,  one  hun- 
tlred  and  thirty  miles  north-west  of  Victoria,  which 
were  found  to  have  been  built  of  sea  sand,  black  mold 
and  shells,  som^  of  which  contained  skeletons.  Shell 
mounds  are  also  described  as  abundant  on  Vancouver 
Island.  From  these  have  been  obtained  stone  ham- 
mers, ui'row-points,  ppear-heads,  knives,  needles  and 


TJic  Pacific  Division. 


185 


awls  of  stone  and  bone,  and  a  few  stone  mortars.  As 
we  move  south  through  Washington  and  Oregon  into 
California,  wo  find  the  mortar  becoming  more  and 
more  common  among  the  prehistoric  articles,  indicat- 
ing a  larger  use  of  seeds  and  other  vegetable  foods, 
one  type  being  somewhat  boat-shaped,  with  a  projec- 
tion at  one  end  in  the  form  of  a  duck's  bill  as  a  han- 
dle ;  others  cylindrical  or  hemispherical.  Other 
pecked  or  polished  stone  articles  also  become  more 
numerous,  and  the  variety  of  chipped  implements  also 
increases.  A  number  of  original  drawings  and  pho- 
tograjDhs  accompanying  a  manuscript  presented  some 
years  ago  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  Mr.  A. 
W.  Chase,  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  on  the  Shell 
Mounds  of  Oregon,  show  a  large  variety  of  stone  ar- 
ticles. Among  the  chipped  implements,  which  are 
chiefly  of  agate,  jasper,  obsidian  and  sandstone,  some 
of  which  are  finely  finished  specimens,  are  arrow  and 
spear-points  of  almost  every  known  form,  knives, 
scrapers,  etc.  Among  tlie  other  stone  articles  are 
mortars,  pestles,  perforated  disks  (spindle  whorls?), 
three  or  four  specimens  of  the  supposed  war-club 
mentioned  al  ove,  cylindrical  pipes,  mullers,  paint 
cups,  and  a  number  of  specimens  whose  use  is  un- 
known. The  articles  figured  on  the  plates  accom- 
panying this  manuscript  number  some  four  or  five 
hundred.  This  collection  was  made  chiefly  along  the 
coast  in  the  extreme  south-west  corner  of  Oregon. 
Unfortunately,  no  detailed  description  of  explora- 
tions is  given  ;  in  fact,  most  of  the  articles  appear 
to  have  been  gathered  from  the  surface,  chance 
openings    and    some    slight   excavations,    the    author 


-^\ 


186 


Stndi/  of  Norfli  American  Archaeologij. 


having  no  opportunity  to   make    more    thorough  ex- 
plorations. 

Most  of  the  .articles  figured  by  Mr.  Chase,  other 
tlian  the  chipptd  ston(>  implements,  belong  to  that 
class  which  may  bo  called  the  California  type. 


California  Section. 


187 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CALIFORNIA    SECTION. 

Until  a  more  tliorougli  investigation  of  tlio  antiqui- 
ties  of  the  Pacific  coast,  north  of  Mexico,  has  been 
made,  it  will  be  unsafe  to  attempt  to  outline  the  minor 
culture  areas  of  this  region  ;  however,  it  is  evident 
tliat  the  prehistoric  articles  of  California,  and  to 
some  extent,  of  tlie  contiguous  sections,  present  cer- 
tain peculiarities  wliich  justify  us  in  speaking  of  them 
as  the  "California  type."  The  differences  between 
the  customs  and  monuments  of  the  former  inhabi- 
tants of  this  region  and  those  of  the  people  who  lived 
further  to  the  nortli,  has  been,  as  will  hereafter  ho 
shown,  specially  noticed  by  Mr.  Powers  in  his  excellent 
work  on  "The  Tribes  of  California." 

Although  investigations  into  the  archaeolo-y  have 
been  carried  on  to  but  a  limited  extent,  a  lar-e  num- 
ber of  native  utensils  have  been  discovered  and  manv 
burial  deposits  located.      Yet,  when  we  take  into  con- 
sideration the   large   number  of   independent,  nativ.> 
hi  guistic    stocks    found    along    the    California    and 
Oregon  coasts,  one  is  surprised  at  the  limited  number 
of  types  found  in  this  region,  especially  throughout 
California.      So.ne  of  tlie   leading  types  of  southern 
California  are  sliown  in   Fig.   72.      These  were  dis- 
covered   by    Mr.    Paul    Schumacher,    several    years 
ago,  near  San  Luis  Obispo.     The   pots  were  carved 
out    of    jnamiesian    mica;    many    sandstone    mortars 


188 


Study  of  North  American  ArcJiaroJogij. 


'4 


different  in  dimensions  but  similar  in  form  were  found, 
one  of  the  largest  of  which  is  shown  in  the  figure,  the 
pestle  being  of  the  same  material.  Quite  a  number 
of  bowl  or  cup-shapod  articles,  measiu'ing  from  one 
and  a  quarter  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  were  obtained. 
These,  two  specimens  of  which  are  shown,  were  neatly- 
worked  out  of  serpentine,  the  surface  being  well  pel- 


-Yvi. 


Kt'lifs  from  southern  California. 


ished.  None  of  these  domestic  imi)lcinents  appear 
to  have  been  intentionally  injured  before  being  de- 
posited with  the  dead. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  New  Ahndden  quicksilver 
mines  we»'e  worked  by  the  natives  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  vermillion,  long  before  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards.      The    excavation    made   by   the    original 


Cat  if 0  rn  ia  Scctio  n . 


189 


g  do- 


Isilvor 
)S0  of 
\i  the 
lijiiial 


miners  was  long  supposed  to  be  a  natural  cavern,  ex- 
tending about  one  liundred  feet  horizontally  into  the 
hill ;  ultimately,  however,  some  skeletons,  rude  mining 
tools  and  other  evidences  of  human  presence  revealed 
the  secret.  In  various  localities  about  Monterey,  in 
addition  to  the  usual  mortars,  arrow  and  spear-heads, 
holes  have  been  discovered  in  the  living  rock,  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  used  as  mortars  for  pound- 
ing acorns  and  other  seeds ;  it  is  possible,  however, 
that  they  arc  holes  from  which  pot  forms  were  ob- 
tained. 

An  interesting  class  of  California  antiquities  which 
have  caused  considerable  discussion,  is  that  which  in- 
cludes aboriginal  remains  discovered  in  the  mininjj 
districts  at  considerable  deptlis  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and,  in  some  instances,  beneath  successive 
layers  of  different  rocks  and  earths,  and  in  connection 
with  fossil  bones  of  extinct  animals.  The  following 
notice  of  some  of  these  finds  is  qiioted  from  Mr.  Ban- 
croft's "Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States." 

"Of  all  the  counties,  Tuolumne  has  apparently 
proved  the  richest  in  antiquarian  remains.  From  the 
mining  tunnels  wliich  penetrate  Table  ^Fountain  there 
was  taken,  in  1858,  a  stone  mortar  holding  two  quarts, 
at  a  deptli  of  three  hundred  feet  from  tlie  surface, 
lying  in  auriferous  gravel  under  a  thick  strata  of  lava. 
In  1862,  another  mortar  was  found  at  a  depth  of  three 
hundred  and  forty  feet,  one  hundred  and  four  of  wliieh 
were  composed  of  lava,  and  eighteen  hundred  feet 
from  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel.  This  relic  is  in  Mr. 
Voy's  collection,  accompanied  by  a  sworn  statement 
of  the  circumstances  of  its  finding.  Dr.  Snell  is  said 
to  have  had  in  his  possession,  in  1862,  a  pendant  or 


:-^i 


190 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


L 


sliuttle  of  silicions  slate,  spear-lieads  six  or  oight  inches 
long,  and  broken  off  at  the  hole  where  they  were  at- 
tached to  the  shaft ;  and  a  scoop,  or  ladle,  of  steatite. 
These  relics  were  found  under  Table  Mountain  at  the 
same  depth  as  the  preceding,  together  with  fossil  bones 
of  the  mastodon  and  other  animals,  and  are  preserved 
in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  in  the  museum  of 
Yale  College.  The  cut  represents  a  stone  mortar  and 
pestle,  found  in  Kincaid  Flat  in  clayey  auriferous 
gravel,  sixteen  or  twenty  feet  below  the  surface,  where 
many  other  stone  implements,  with  bones  of  tlie  mas- 
todon, elephant,  horse  and  camel,  have  been  found  at 
different  times.  A  bow  handle,  or  shuttle,  of  mica- 
ceous slate  found  here  will  be  shown  in  another  cut 
with  similar  relics  from  a  different  locality. 

"At  Shaw's  Flat,  with  bones  of  the  mastodon,  a  stone 
bead  of  calcspar,  two  inches  long  and  the  same  in  cir- 
cumference, was  taken  from  under  a  strata  of  lava  at 
a  ijoint  three  hundred  feet  from  the  mouth  of  the  tun- 
nel. A  granite  mortar,  holding  about  a  ])int,  came 
from  the  same  mining  town. 

"At  Blanket  creek,  near  Sonora,  stone  relics  and 
bones  of  the  mastodon  were  found  together  in  ISoo. 
Wood's  creek  was  another  locality  where  stone  relics 
with  fossil  bones,  including  those  of  the  tapir,  are  re- 
l)ort(Kl  to  have  been  dug  out  at  a  d(>pth  of  twenty  to 
fortv  feet. 


"The  famous  'Calaveras  skull'  was  taken  from  a 
mining  shaft  at  Altaville,  at  a  depth  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  beneath  seven  strata  of  lava  and  gravel. 
The  evidence  was  sufficient  to  convince  Pi'of.  Whitney 
and  other  scientific  men  that  this  skull  was  actually 


California  Sectio}i. 


191 


and 

ISoH. 

relics 

•e  re- 

nty  to 


•oni  a 
ndrod 
ravel. 

litnoy 
tually 


found  as  claimed,  although,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
doubt  and  not  a  little  ridicule  have  been  expressed 
about  the  subject.  Many  stone  mortars  and  mastodon 
bones  have  been  found  about  Altaville  and  Murphy's, 
but  not  under  lava." 

Prof.  Dall,  in  a  note  to  the  American  edition  of 
Nadaillac's  "Prehistoric  America,"  says: 

"No  reasonable  person  who  has  impartially  re- 
viewed the  evidence  brought  together  by  Whitney, 
and  who  saw,  as  we  did,  the  Calaveras  skull  in  its 
original  condition,  can  doubt  that  it  was  found,  as  al- 
leged by  the  discoverers,  in  the  auriferous  gravels  below 
tlie  lava.  The  only  question  lo  wlilch  some  uncer- 
tainty still  attach(>s  itself  among  geologists  is,  that  of 
tlie  true  age  of  th  ^  ;  gravels  in  geological  ti.  ie  ;  and 
whether  all  the  extinct  species  of  v/hich  remains  ai'e 
found  in  them  were  contemporaneous  with  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  gravels,  and  with  the  then  undoubted  pres- 
ence of  man." 

Without  entering  into  a  discussion  of  the  questions 
which  arise  in  connection  with  these  finds,  it  is  apparent 
that  tho  presence  of  polished  and  pecked,  or,  in  other 
words,  neolithic  implements,  exactly  like  those  from 
graves  and  refuse  heaps,  Avholly  forbids  the  supposition 
tluit  here  we  find  evidence  of  preglacial  man.  This 
appears  to  be  tho  growing  conviction  of  modern  scien- 
tists, though  it  has  not  as  yet  received  the  assent  of 
all.  How  these  comparatively  recent  prehistoric  ar- 
ticles reached  the  depth  where  found  is  a  (question  left 
to  scientists  to  solve. 

From  the  account  of  some  excavations  made  near 
Santa  IJarbara  by  the  survey  under  Lieutenant 
Wheeler,  the  following  information  in  regard  to  an- 


192 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


cient  burials,  relative  to  the  position  and  character  of 
the  objects  discovered,  is  obtained.  It  sliould  be  noted, 
however,  that,  although  a  number  of  refuse  or  kitchen 
heaps  were  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  the  burials  had 
not  been  made  in  these,  nor  were  they  in  mounds,  but 
in  places  where  the  surface  of  the  ground  presented 
no  unusual  features,  except  that  it  appeared  to  be 
slightly  depressed  at  these  i)oints,  and  tiiat  here  and 
there  ribs  and  vertebrae  of  whales  protruded  above 
the  soil. 

"Two  feet  below  the  surface  the  first  indications  of 
burials  were  reached,  quantities  of  broken  bones  being 
met  with  at  every  stroke  of  the  spade,  interspersed 
with  pieces  of  whales'  bones  and  decaying  red-wood. 
At  a  depth  of  five  feet,  the  first  entire  skeleton  was 
found  in  position,  and  near  it  several  others  were 
subsequently  uncovered ;  in  all  of  them  the  head 
fronted  northward,  the  face  was  downward,  and  the 
lower  limbs  were  extended.  Over  the  femur  of  one 
of  the  skeletons  was  a  flat  plate  of  steatite,  a  sort  of 
soapstone,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  square,  with  a 
hole  in  one  end,  which  was  called  a  'tortilla-stone,' 
its  probable  use  having  been  for  cooking  cakes,  or 
tortillas,  or  else  for  heating  water,  the  hole  in  the 
end  serving  to  draw  it  from  the  fire  when  thoroughly 
heated.  In  rear  of  the  skeleton,  and  to  one  side  of 
the  plate,  w.as  an  olla,  or  jar,  of  steatite,  broken,  but 
containing  some  fine  glass  beads  and  human  teeth  ; 
and  behind  this,  a  stone  pestle  of  symmetrical  shape, 
about  three  feet  in  length,  of  a  hard  species  of  sand- 
stone, and  another  plate  of  steatite,  and  two  large 
ollas  of  over  five  gallons  capacity,  their  mouths  or 
apertures  fronting  north  ;  and  just  above  was  a  single 


^^v. 


California  Section. 


193 


craniuin  faring  the  cliff,  face  downward,  and  on  top  of 
it  a  single  femur.  Continuing  *he  excavations  toward 
the  clift",  a  small  sandstone  mortar  was  exhumed, 
containing  a  mass  of  red  paint,  and  in  its  immediate 
vicinity  a  large  number  of  beads  of  glass  and  shell, 
with  ornaments  made  from  tlie  lamina  of  the  abalone 
shell,  A'hich  is  common  to  tliis  coast,  being  found  in 
great  abundance  on  the  islands  some  twenty  miles 
distant.  Digging  still  farther,  other  skeletons  were 
found  in  similar  positions,  but  in  many  instances  the 
lower  limbs  were  fiexed  upon  the  body,  while  in  a  few 
cases  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  were  in  the  mouth. 
One  skeleton  was  that  of  a  child,  near  which  were 
found  beads,  ornaments,  tortilla-stones,  and  two  more 
ollas,  one  of  which  contained  portions  of  the  cranium 
of  a  child.  This  skeleton  had  apparently  been 
wrapped  in  a  kind  of  grnss  matting,  as  small  portions 
were  found  attached  to  the  bones  and  scattered  near 
by.  In  the  olla  containing  the  head  bones  of  the 
child  were  a  great  number  of  small  black  seeds, 
smaller  than  the  miistard  seed,  which  were  recognized 
by  one  of  the  laborers  as  a  seed  used  by  the  present 
California  Indians  and  natives  in  nuiking  demulcent 
drinks  and  eye-washes." 

Further  excavations  are  described  as  follows  : 
"In  one  trench,  a  number  of  crania  and  bones  were 
found,  in  similar  positions  to  the  first  met  with,  and 
also  several  fine  ollas,  tortilla-stones,  mortars  and 
pestles.  All  these  utensils  were  invariably  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  heads  of  the  skeletons ;  in 
fact,  in  many  instances,  the  crania  were  covered  by 
large  mortars,  placed  orifice  down.  In  the  second 
13 


194 


Sliidji  i)j  Xorth  Aimrivan  Avchaeolotjy. 


I  i 


L 


trench,  the  digging  was  in  an  easterly  direction,  and 
the  first  discovery  was  that  of  a  skeleton  and  a  frag- 
ment of  iron  near  the  right  hand,  probably  a  knife  or 
spear-head,  which,  archaeologically  speaking,  was  a 
source  of  great  grief  to  us,  our  hope  being  that  no 
remnants  of  Spanish  civilization  would  bo  found  in 
these  graves.  It  could  not  be  helped,  however, 
though  a  great  deal  of  prehistoric  romance  was  at 
once  de8tro3'ed.  Near  this  skeleton  was  another,  and 
by  its  side  the  first  pipe  met  with,  which  was  similar 
in  appearance  to  a  plain  modern  cigar-holder,  and 
consisted  of  a  tube  of  the  stone  called  serpentine, 
eight  inches  long,  the  diameter  of  the  wider  orifice 
being  a  little  over  an  inch.  At  the  smaller  end  was  a 
mouth-piece,  formed  from  a  piece  of  a  bone  of  some 
large  water-fowl,  and  cemented  in  place  by  asphaltum. 
How  these  pipes  were  used  with  any  degree  of  comfort 
is  impossible  to  surmise. 

"Continuing  this  excavation,  the  next  discovery 
was  a  steatite  olla  containing  a  skull,  differing  in 
many  respects  from  those  found  in  the  graves  ;  if  from 
one  of  the  same  tribe,  it  shows  marked  differentiation. 
Near  the  olla  was  a  large  sandstone  mortar,  over  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  behind  it  another  olla,  contain- 
ing more  bones,  and  another  pipe,  10^  inches  in 
length,  and  near  this  latter  article  a  smaller  olla  filled 
with  red  paint.  It  should  have  been  mentioned  that 
from  this  trench  was  procured  a  femur,  showing  evi- 
dences of  fracture  through  the  neck  of  the  bone, 
which  had  become  absorbed,  the  head  uniting  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  shaft  between  the  greater  and 
lesser  trochanters.  Further  search  revealed  at  the 
same  depth  a  mortar,  covered  by  the  shoulder-blade 


Calif uni in  Section . 


195 


from 
ition. 
r  two 
ntain- 
;'s   in 
filled 
that 
ts,  evi- 
^one, 
o  the 
and 
the 
blade 


,t 


of  a  wlialo,  w  hicli  also  contained  the  skull  of  an  in- 
fant, covered  with  an  abalone  shell,  while  near  by 
were  paint,  a  piece  of  iron,  a  nail  and  various  shell 
ornaments  and  beads.  Near  at  hand,  to  the  rear, 
were  a  broken  mortar  and  ])ot,  underneath  which  was 
a  small  oUa,  the  whole  covei'in<^  the  skull  of  a  cliild  ; 
and  a  little  deeper,  a  skull  resting  ui)on  a  tine,  large, 
pear-shaped  steatite  olla,  the  outside  of  reddish  color. 
Th«>se  remains  ai)pear  to  liave  been  inclosed  in  a  sort 
of  fence,  as  a  i)lank  and  stakes  of  dc^cayed  redwood 
were  near  ])y.  At  the  bottom  of  this  trench,  just 
above  the  firm  day,  and  under  all  the  specim<'ns  just 
(lescril)e(l,  was  a  fine  sandstone  pestle,  17^  inches  in 
length. 

"Continued  in  the  same  trench,  advancing  in  a 
northerly  direction  toward  trench  No.  1,  At  a  depth 
of  four  feet  were  two  skeletons,  and  near  them  was  a 
sijuare  cake  of  red  paint ;  alongside  were  two  more 
skeletons,  over  one  of  which  was  a  large  mortar, 
mouth  downward,  and  close  by  another  similar  uten- 
sil. Under  this  skeleton  were  an  instrument  of  iron 
fourteen  inches  in  length,  a  long  iron  nail  and  two 
pieces  of  redwood,  much  decayed.  A  little  farther  in 
was  a  small  canoe,  carved  from  steatite.  All  the 
skeletons  were  face  downward,  heads  to  the  north. 
In  trench  No.  1,  the  digging  was  continued  in  a 
southerly  direction.  The  first  object  encountered  was 
an  enormous  mortar,  twenty-seven  inches  in  diameter, 
with  its  pestle  near  by.  This  article  was  on  its  side, 
the  mouth  toward  the  south  ;  around  it  were  no  fewer 
than  thirty  crania,  some  in  a  fair  state  of  preserva- 
tion, and  others  very  friable,  broken  and  worthless. 
Lying  on   top  of  this  mortar,  on  further  removal  of 


DG 


St  11(1 1/  (if  Xorfh  Amfricnn  Arrhafolopi/. 


L 


tlie  oartli,  was  jui  almost  ciitiro  skoletoii,  with  fraj;- 
incnts  of  loii<;  boiios  niul  of  steatite  pottery.  As  siir- 
inised  by  soiuo  of  the  i)urty,  the  ])(>rfi'ct  skclototi  was 
that  of  a  chief,  and  the  remains  those  of  his  shives 
slain  with  him,  which  is  at  least  a  possible,  if  not  a 
plausible,  view  of  the  case." 

Although  the  results  of  otluT  excavations  are  de- 
scril)e(l,  those  meiitioned  will  sufHce  to  show  the 
mod(>s  of  burial  and  the  character  of  the  antitjuities 
in  this  locality.  The  same  ])arty  discovered  the 
method  of  obtaininj;^  from  steatite  ledges  the  pot- 
forms,  or  masses  lut  of  which  pots  were  to  be  carved. 

In  the  somewnat  extensive  collection  made  by 
Lieutenant  Wheeler's  party  in  southern  C-alifornia  are 
a  number  of  beautiful  specimens  of  long,  slender, 
chipped  flint  implements  supposed  to  have  been  used 
as  knives.  Some  of  these  are  t(Mi  inches  in  length, 
and  specimens  have  been  found  fifteen  inches  long. 
Most  of  the  pots  (stone)  obtained  were  of  the  globular 
form.  The  stone  pipes  were  almost  exclusively  of 
the  straight,  cylindrical  type  without  bowl,  or,  in 
other  words,  a  simple  cylinder.  These  are  made  of 
steatite,  talcose  slate  or  serpentine,  and  vary  in  length 
from  three  to  ten  inches.  They  are  usually  smooth 
and  plain,  an  occasional  one  only  being  ornamented 
by  encircling  or  diagonal  grooves.  Perforated  stone 
disks,  or  supposed  spindle  whorls,  form  a  large  part 
of  the  collection,  these  being  found  in  great  abun- 
dance on  the  main  line  and  islands  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia. A  few  stone  articles  made  to  represent  the 
whale  were  found.  The  bone  articles  obtained  em- 
brace needles,  awls,  fish-hooks,  harpoon-points,  knives 
and    a   variety   of    ornaments.      Remains    of    basket 


( '(ill  font  In  Serf  Ion . 


m 


frag- 
rt  su  I'- 
ll was 
slaves 

not  a 

iro  cle- 
w   the 
juitios 
'd    the 
lo   pot- 
Mvrved. 
ide    by 
nia  are 
lender, 
Ml  used 
length, 
s  long, 
obular 
ely  of 
or,  in 
lade  of 
lengtli 
mooth 
niented 
stone 
ge  part 
abun- 
Cali- 
ent  the 
led  em- 
knives 
basket 


n 


work  and  texiih^  fabrics  were  also  discovcfi'd.  ^oin»>  of 
which,  however,  indicate  contact  with  luiropeaiis,  as 
do  also  a  number  of  iron  aiul  ghiss  artich's  obtained 
fi'oMi  the  graves. 

Thc!  ahnost  total  absence  of  ])otterv  from  this  soc- 
tion  contrasts  strongly  witii  the  great  al)iin(lance 
found  in  the  ])ii(  hlo  region,  though  most  of  the  ves- 
sels of  tlio  two  regions  are  similar  in  form.  The  ab- 
sence of  carved  ligures  or  imitative  designs,  and  also 
of  ornamentation  of  any  ivind,  is  a  marked  peculiarity 
of  the  anticjuities  of  this  region.  The  angular  de- 
signs so  common  in  the  pueblo  region,  and  even 
farther  south,  are  wanting  here.  Utility  alone  seems 
to  have  been  the  ruling  motive  in  all  their  manu- 
factures, decoration  being  entirely  overlooked. 

The  following  statements  by  Mr.  Stei)]u'n  Powers 
(Vol.  Ill,  (contributions  to  North  American  Eth- 
nology), wiio  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  Cali- 
fornia tribes,  may  Ix!  ajjpropriately  quoted  here  : 

"The  fact  of  the  almost  total  lack  of  ceramic  re- 
mains, and  the  character  of  the  relics  found  in 
Alameda  and  other  shell-mounds,  show  tliat  the 
present  race  must  either  have  supi)lanted  or  de- 
scendiHl  from  one  which  was  little  move  advanced 
than  themselves.  The  few  simple  stone  implements 
used  by  the  Calif(jrniii  Indians  resemble,  in  their 
main  purpose  and  design,  those  of  tlie  extinct  races 
exhumed  in  the  shell-mounds,  only  they  are  conspicu- 
ously ruder  and  simpler.  Take  tlie  stone  moi-tars, 
for  instance.  The  prehistorical  mortar  is  carefully 
dressed  on  the  outside,  and  has  three  general  shapes, 
either  flattish  and  round  or  shaped  like  a  duck's  egg 
with  the  bowl  on  the  side,  or  else  with  the  bt)wl  in  the 


198 


Stiidi/  of  NortJi  American  Archaeology. 


r- 

t:, , 

4  ■ 

1 

L 


largo  end  and  tlie  small  end  inserted  into  the  ground, 
or  c'vlindrical  Avith  the  bowl  in  the  end.  But  the  In- 
dian now  tak(>s  a  small  bowlder  of  trap  or  greenstone 
and  beats  out  a  hollow  in  it,  leaving  the  outside  rough. 
Whenever  one  is  seen  in  possession  of  a  mortar 
dressed  on  the  outside,  lie  will  acknowledge  that  he 
did  not  make  it,  but  found  it ;  in  other  words,  it  is 
prehistorical.  The  prehistorics  used  handsomely 
dressed  pestles,  sometimes  embellished  with  rings ; 
but  the  squaw  now-a-days  simply  picks  up  a  long, 
slender  cobble  from  the  brook. 

"The  i^rehistorics  of  California  carved  out  long, 
heavy  knives  or  swords,  of  obsidian  or  jasper,  which 
were  probably  kept  as  family  heirlooms,  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  to  bo  paraded  as  jewelry  or  borne 
aloft  as  a  sort  of  mace  on  certain  solemn  occasions. 
The  Indians  of  to-day  have  the  same  articles  and  use 
them  for  the  same  purpose  ;  but  their  inferiority  to 
their  predecessors  shows  forth  in  the  fact  that  they  no 
longer  manufacture  them,  but  confine  their  ambition 
to  keeping  them  in  the  family. 

"The  prehistorics  made  out  of  sandstone  or  other 
soft  stones  a  small  and  almost  perfect  sphere  as  an 
acorn-sholler  ;  but  the  squaAV  nowadays  simply  selects 
for  this  purpose  a  smooth  cobble  from  the  creek  bed. 

"In  the  collection  of  Mr.  A.  W.  Chase,  of  the 
United  States  Coast  Survey,  there  are  spindlo-whorls 
of  stone,  some  of  them  found  in  mounds  raised  by 
extinct  tribes  and  others  found  among  the  Klamath 
Indians  and  the  Noamlakki  in  gravel-mining  claims. 
The  Indians  of  this  day  use  no  such  implement  for 
any  purposes  whatever.  Near  Freestone,  Sonoma 
county,  I   saw  in  possession  of  the   finder  what  was 


California  Section. 


ID!) 


other 

as  nil 
selects 
bed. 

f  the 
svhorls 

ed  by 


probably  a  spindle-whorl  of  pottery,  the  only  instance 
of  the  kind  1  know  of. 

"In  regard  to  tobacco  pipes  the  deterioration  is  not 
so  manifest,  for  I  have  seen  serpentine  pipes  of  as 
handsome  workmanship  as  any  obtained  from  the 
mounds,  thougli  even  these  may  be  old  heirlooms. 
But  1  still  think  there  is  deterioration  shown  in  the 
fact  that  the  Indians  nowadays  use  so  many  wooden 
pipes  of  the  rudest  construction  ;  though  we  have  no 
means  of  showing  that  their  ancestors  did  not  use 
eciually  poor  ones,  siace  their  wooden  jnpes,  if  they 
had  any,  have  perish  ;d. 

"Then  again,  as  to  the  shell-mounds  themselves,  I 
am  of  the  opinion  that  they  are  merel}^  the  accumu- 
lations of  a  race  of  men  who  dived  for  clams,  as  the 
Wintun  of  the  Upper  Sacramento  do  to  this  day,  to  a 
limited  extent.  In  other  words,  the  Wintun  and 
other  tribes  are  descended  from  a  people  who  were 
more  energetic  and  industrious  than  themselves." 

While  this  indicates  a  retrogression  in  art  on  the  part 
of  the  modern  descendants  of  the  former  inhabitants, 
it  applies  more  to  quality  and  finish  than  to  types. 
It  is  also  apparent  that  Mr.  Powers  recognizes  in  the 
modern  Indians  of  California  the  descendants  of  the 
authors  of  the  antiquities  of  that  region.  Hubert 
Bancroft,  alluding  to  California  and  the  coast  region 
north  to  C'olumbia  river,  asserts  that  at  the  time  he 
was  writing  ( ISTo),  there  had  not  been  found  and  re- 
ported on  good  authority  a  single  monument  or  relic 
which  is  siitHcifMit  to  prove  that  tlie  country  was  ever 
inhabited  by  any  people  wliose  claims  to  be  regarded 
as  civilized  were  superior  to  those  of  the  tribes  found 
by  Europeans  in  this  section.     The   pr(>seiic(>  of  iron 


200 


Studtj  of  Xorlk  Ainvricaa  Archacolugi/. 


and  glafrs  articles  in  some  of  the  graves  proves  beyond 
question  contact  with  Europeans,  and  tlie  general 
similarity  of  the  articles  found  in  these  and  the  most 
ancient  graves,  seems  to  l(>ave  no  doubt  of  their 
having  been  made  by  people  in  the  same  culture- 
status,  having  the  same  general  customs,  though  they 
may  have  belonged  to  different  tribes  and  possibly 
different  stocks. 

Pr( historic  Movements  of  Population. 

If  the  reader  ■will  examine  Major  J.  W.  Powi'U's 
linguistic  m;ip  showing  the  location  of  the  Iiulian 
stocks  north  of  Mexico,  he  will  find,  if  we  may  use 
the  term,  a  singular  ethno-geographic  condition  iu 
this  west  coast  region.  Between  Columbia  river  and 
the  southern  end  of  California,  and  extending  back 
but  a  comparatively  short  distance  into  the  interior, 
are  crowded  more  than  half  the  stocks  noted  on  the 
entire  map,  yet  covering  less  than  half  the  area  occu- 
pied by  the  Shoshonean  family  which  bounds  their 
eastern  borders.  Among  these  are  seen  three  detached 
groups  of  the  great  Athapascan  family,  a  fact  which 
may  possibly  assist,  to  some  extent,  in  solving  the 
singular  problem  which  is  here  presetUed.  Are 
these  renuiants  of  larger  stocks  which  occupied 
this  region  prior  to  the  coming  of  the  Shoshoites, 
which  have  been  reduced  by  the  latter  and  jn-essed 
toward  the  coast?  That  the  diminutive  size  of  the 
groups  and  their  crowded  condition  indicate  such  a 
l)ressure  seems  apparent.  However,  the  probhMn  is  a 
difficult  one,  and  will  probably  never  be  satisfactorily 
solved. 


California  Section. 


201 


That  the  movements  of  popuhition  in  tlio  Pacific 
division,  from  the  fifty-fifth  degree  of  latitude  to  the 
borders  of  Mexico,  were  southward,  is  generally  con- 
ceded by  t^^ose  wlio  have  given  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject. Mr.  Stephen  Powers  not  only  mentions  tradi- 
tions of  movements  from  the  nortli  toward  the  south, 
l)ut  gives  as  his  conclusion,  based  on  his  personal  in- 
v(>stigations,  that  such  was  the  general  course  of  mi- 
gration, in  fact  speaks  of  it  as  a  point  clearly  estab- 
lished. 

Judge  Roseborough,  in  a  letter  tpioted  by  Hubert 
Bancroft,  writes  : 

"In  an  ethnological  view,  the  languages  of  these 
various  tribes  is  a  subject  of  great  interest.  Tliey 
seem  to  be  governed  by  the  geographical  nature  of  the 
country,  which  has  had  much  influence  in  directing 
the  migrations  and  settlement  of  the  various  tribes  in 
tliis  state,  where  they  have  been  found  by  the  whites  ; 
and  there  have  been  in  remote  times  at  least  three 
currents,  or  lines  of  migration,  namely :  first,  one 
along  the  coast  southward,  dispersing  more  or  less 
toward  the  interior  as  the  iiaiuro  of  the  country  and 
hostile  tribes  permitted.  In  so  broken  and  rough  a 
country  the  migrations  must  have  been  slow,  and  the 
eddies  numerous,  leaving  many  fragments  of  aborigi- 
nal ti'ilM>s  here  and  there,  with  language  and  customs 
wholly  dissimihu".  Second,  that  along  the  Willamette 
valley,  over  the  passes  of  the  Calapooya,  across  the 
open  lands  of  the  Umpqua,  soutliward  through  the 
Rogue  river  valley,  into  Shasta  and  Scott  valleys. 
As  an  evidence  of  this  trace,  I  may  mention  that  all 
the  tribes  on  this  line,  from  the  Calapooya  mountains 
southward  to  the  head  of  Shasta  and   Scott  valleys, 


202 


Stinlij  of  Xovtii  American  Archaeology. 


h 

V 


speak  the  same  lanj^iiage,  and  were  confederate  in 
their  wars  with  tlie  tribes  on  Pitt  river,  who  seem  to 
have  arrested  their  progress  southward. 
Thirdly,  anotlier  wave  of  migration  evidently  came 
southward  along  the  Des  C-hutes  i'iv(r,  upon  the  great 
plateau  of  the  lakes,  which  is  borne  out  by  a  simi- 
larity of  languages  and  customs,  as  well  as  by  tra- 
ditions." 

Powers  remarks  in  regard  to  this  opinion,  "T  am 
inclined  to  accept  this  theory,  and  indeed  before  I  had 
ever  seen  Judge  Roseborougirs  letter,  I  had  come  to 
a  similar  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  line  of  southward 
migration  along  the  coast."  Dr.  Gibbs,  an  accepted 
authority,  so  far  as  he  alludes  to  the  subject,  indicates 
that  the  movements  in  Washington  and  Oregon  have 
been  southward  ;  that  of  some  of  the  interior  tribes 
he  thinks  has  been  toward  the  south-west. 

Further  reference  to  the  subject  will  be  made  here- 
after in  discussing  the  general  course  of  migravions  in 
the  Pacific  division. 


The  LUcrmontane  or  Pueblo  :Scctii 


on. 


203 


CHAPTER  Xiy. 

TIIK    INTKRMONTANK    (>K    PUEnLO    SKCTION. 

Mr.  Hubert  Bancroft  in  ]iis  arrangement  of  ilie  Pa- 
cific regions,  extends  considerably  tlie  boundaries  of 
tliis  interior  section,  including  under  tlie  designation 
"New  Mexicans,"  the  nations  of  New  Mexic^'o,  Ari- 
zona, Lower  California,  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Chihu'ahua, 
Durango,  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon,  northern  Zacatecas 
and  western  Texas.  However,  it  seems  best  to  limit 
It  for  the  present  as  outlined  in  a  pi-evious  chapter, 
following  chief!}-  the  archaeologic  indications. 

The  pliysical  characteristics  of   this  region   are  so 
wholly  different  from  those  of  the  mound  section  as 
to  load  a  priori  to  the  assumption  that  here  we  may  ex- 
pect to  find  evidences  of  a  widely  different  culture 
Instead  of  a  well-watered  country,  with  a  rich  soil 
covered  in  most  parts  by  heavy  forests,  we  enter  here 
upon  a  region  traversed  by  numerous  dt  :ached  and  in- 
tersecting  ranges,    between   which   lie    arid   regions 
half-desert    areas   with    low   scanty   vegetationr  and 
occasionally  fertile  valleys,  with    a  scant  water  sup- 
ply.    Isolated  peaks  and  broad,  level  mesas  arise  from 
the  plains.     The  elevated  plateaus  are  gashed  by  in- 
num(-rable  canons,  usually  dry  except  for  a  short  time 
during  tlie  limited  rainy  season,  or  rathe.-  brief  rainv 
spells. 

Many  of  the  canons  of  this  south-western  region 
which  are  now  dry  and  parched,  with  little  vegetation 


204 


Stiidi/  of  North  American  Arcliarolixjij. 


L: 


save  tho  low  gray  sage  brush,  aiul  entirely  devoiil  of 
inhabitants,  were,  in  prehistoric  times,  occupied  by  a 
people  who  built  their  little  villages  or  communal 
ihvellings  against  the  base  of  lofty  clilfs,  or  high  up 
the  sides  in  the  caves  and  shelves  ;  or  excavated  cell- 
like abodes  in  the  face  of  the  precipices.  Sometimes 
the  level  top  of  a  lofty  mesa  was  selected  as  the  site 
of  the  village,  or  where  the  danger  from  incursions 
was  not  great,  the  level  valley.  Mr.  G.  Nordenskiold, 
in  his  most  excellent  work  on  tlio  "Mesa  Verde,"  of 
south-western  Colorado,  has  classified  these  works 
geographically  according  to  the  river  systems,  as  he 
thinks  there  are  sufficient  differences  between  the 
types  of  these  systems  to  justify  this  arrangement. 

1.  The  ruins  along  the  upper  coiu'se  of  the  Rio 
Colorado  and  its  tributaries,  from  the  Virgin  river, 

2.  The  ruins  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  its  tributaries. 

3.  The  ruins  of  the  Gila  river  and  its  trilnitaries. 
He  classifies  the  various  remains,  topograpliically. 

as  follows  : 

1.  Ruins  in  the  valleys,  on  the  .i)lains,  and  on  tlu* 
plateaus. 

2.  Ruins  in  caves  in  the  walls  of  the  canons. 

It  is  probable,  however,  that  a  more  correct  idea  of 
the  ditferent  types  will  be  ol)tained  by  the  reader  from 
a  slight  modification  of  Mr.  Holmes's  classification, 
thus  :  1,  settlements  or  villages  in  the  valleys  and  on 
the  plains;  2,  settlements  or  villagers  on  tlio  high 
plateaus  or  mesas ;  3,  cliff-dwellings,  consisting  of 
single  or  communal  houses  built  in  the  openings, 
shelves  and  rock-shelters  in  the  cliffs ;  and  4,  the 
cave-dwellings  hollowed  out,  in  most  cases  artificially, 
in  the  face  of  the  cliffs.     Tliat  the  siies  selected  for, 


The  Ldcrmontane  or  Pueblo  Section. 


20i 


o 
|0-     of 


and  mode  of  constructing  the  last  throe,  were  with  a 
view  to  socurity  against  attack,  and  greater  probabil- 
ity of  successful  defense,  seems  apparent. 

Cave  Divellings,  or  Artificial  Cavatc  Abodes . 

These,  so  far  as  discovered,  occur  chiefly  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Rio  Grande,  between  Santa  CUara  and 
Cochiti,  a  stretch  of  some  seventy-five  or  eighty  miles  ; 
and  in  the  San  Juan  valley,  especially  in  the  section 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Mancos.  The  elevated 
portions  of  the  former  section  are  composed  chiefly  of 
a  yellow  volcanic  tufa  of  coarse  texture,  sufficiently 
soft  and  yielding  to  be  readily  carved  or  worked  out 
with  the  stone  implements  possessed  by  the  ancient  in- 
habitants. The  cliff's  rise  perpendicidarly  to  the 
height  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  feet  above  the 
sloping  talus  or  debris  which  extends  downward  to 
the  bottom  of  the  canons.  It  is  in  the  lower  part  of 
these  perpendicular  cliff's  the  former  inhabitants  hol- 
lowed out  their  dwelling-places  like  so  many  hermit 
cells. 

The  process  of  forming  these  strange  n  bodes  ap- 
pears, from  the  indications,  to  have  been  about  as  fol- 
lows :  The  doors,  which  are  usually  somewhat  square, 
were  first  cut  into  the  face  of  the  cliff"  to  the  depth  of 
about  a  foot,  then  the  work  of  hollowing  out  the  room 
began.  This  is  generally  oval  or  irregularly  roimded, 
about  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  and  only  of  sufficient 
height  at  the  lowest  point  to  permit  a  full-grown 
person  to  stand  upright.  The  inside  was  excavated 
by  scraping  grooves  several  inches  deep  at  intervals  of 
several  inches,  and  breaking  out  the  intermediate 
portion.     In  this  way  the  work  progressed  until  tlie 


206 


Sfudi/  of  Xortli.  Aiiicricaii  ArrJineolofji/. 


4i- 


u 


room  reaclu'd  the  desinul  size.  Alon<;  the  inner  walls 
of  those  rooms  are  little  niches  and  rec(>sses  used  as 
places  for  storing  household  articles,  ornaments,  etc. 
Generally  there  are  small  hoh^s  or  mortises  in  the  side 
close  to  the  roof,  from  some  of  which  the  decayed  ends 
of  wooden  b(>ams  still  project.  These  were  probably 
used,  as  is  still  the  custom  in  some  of  the  Pueblos,  as 
poles  on  which  to  hang  blank(>ts  and  clothing  or  meat 
to  dry.  In  addition  to  the  door  opening,  the  outer 
wall  is  sometimes  pierced  by  one  or  two  irregular 
holes  which  probably  served  as  windows.  Although 
there  are  abundant  evidence's  in  the  blackened  roofs 
of  the  use  of  fire  in  these  dwellings,  there  are  no  fire- 
places. In  many  cases  there  are  rows  of  holes  across 
the  outside  front,  which  received  the  ends  of  beams 
forming  the  support  to  balconies. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  description,  it  may  bo 
added  that  in  some  cases  the  roof  is  arched,  and  the 
doors  narrowed  at  the  top.  In  numy  of  the  caves  ex- 
amined there  is  a  firm  and  level  floor  of  fine,  red  clay  ; 
and  on  the  sides  the  remains  of  a  coat  of  plaster,  con- 
sisting of  yellow  and  red  clay.  The  lower  part  of  the 
walls  is  occasionally  plastered  in  one  color  and  the 
upper  part  next  the  roof  in  another,  a  broad,  dark- 
brown  stripe  being  the  line  of  doniai'kation.  In  some 
cases,  smaller  caves  are  found  back  of  a  larger  on(>, 
communicating  with  the  main  room  by  means  of  tiny 
doorways. 

Although  these  caves  usiuilly  open  at  the  top  of  the 
talus  or  sloping  debris  which  lies  against  the  base  of 
the  cliffs,  here  and  there  are  some  situated  higher  up 
the  face  of  the  precipice,  while  below  them  are  seen 
the  hollows   of  former  abodes   from   which   the  front 


The  JiilcnnuiUaiK'  or  Puchlo  Scrtioii, 


207 


walls  have  falliMi  away.  It  is  probable  that  in  the 
latter  case  the  front  was  built  up  of  stone,  as  imme- 
diately at  tlio  foot  of  the  cliff  rough-hewn  blocks  are 
found.  The  face  of  a  cliff  showing  the  openings  to 
these  caves  is  seen  in  Fig.  73 

From  Mr.  Holmes's  "Report  on  the  Ancient  Ruins  of 
South-western  ('olo- 
rado, ' '  it  appears  that 
the  numner  of  walling 
up  the  front  of  the 
cave-dwellings,  as 
here  given  (Fig.  73), 
i  s  frequently  o  b- 
served  along  t  li  e 
bluffs  of  the  Rio 
Mancos,  where,  in 
corresponding  cliffs 
of  shaly  sandstone, 
there  are  many  ex- 
amples. The  walls 
in  many  cases  are 
well  ])reserved,  hav- 
ing a  somewhat 
recent  appearance, 
while  all  about,  high 
and  low,  are  others 
in  various   stages  of 


Fig.  73.     Manner  ui  svalliiia  up  the  front 
of  cave  dwellings. 


decay.  In  one  place 
a  picturesque  out- 
standing promontory  is  literally  honey-combed  with 
these  cave-houses,  the  outer  openings  to,  and  aper- 
tures comi..unicating  between  them,  being  of  barely 
sufficient  size  to   allow  a  person  of  ordinary  i)ropor- 


208 


Study  of  Xurfh  Amrrican  Archnrology. 


tions  to  pass  tlirouj^li.  On  llu>  brink  of  tho  promon- 
tory immediately  above  stands  tho  ruin  of  a  tower, 
undoubtedly  bearing  some  relation  to  tlio  people  who, 
like  swallows,  had  nuule  their  nests  ii\  the  face  of  the 
cliir.  As  there  were  other  towers  on  high  points 
along  tho  stream,  it  is  probai.^o  they  were  used  as 
lookout  and  signal  stations,  from  which  warning  could 
bo  given  in  time  of  danger.  Mr.  Holmes  visited  and 
measured  seven  along  the  lower  fifteen  miles  of  the 
course  of  the  Rio  Mancos.  He  found  that  they 
ranged  from  ten  to  sixteen  feet  in  diameter,  the  re- 
mains yet  standing  varying  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  in 
htif'ht.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  a  double  cir- 
cle or  rather  two  circles  tangent  to  one  another.  The 
smaller,  which  is  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  is  the  tower 
proper,  the  standing  portion  being  still  from  eight  to 
ten  feet  high.  The  larger  circle,  about  forty  feet  in 
diameter,  appears  to  have  been  simply  an  inclosure,  but 
for  what  purpose  is  unknown. 


Cliff-dwell  iug.f. 

Although  this  term,  when  strictly  used,  refers  to 
those  single  or  communal  houses  constructed  in  the 
shelves  and  recesses  of  the  cliffs,  yet  we  may  include 
under  it  those  dwellings  which  are  built  against  the 
base  of  the  clifFo. 

These  clifF-dwellings,  or  rather,  as  Nordenskiold 
remarks,  "clifF-towns,"  are  in  some  respects  the  most 
remarkable  ruins  of  the  south-west.  They  occur  at 
various  points  throughout  the  Rio  Colorado  basin. 
Nearly  ail  of  the  Mesa  Verde  ruins  belong  to  this 
class  ;  they  occur  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio  San 
Juan  and  in  the  cafions  and  valleys  which   open   on 


Till  Iiitcnnuntanv  or  Pueblo  Section. 


209 


its  north  bank,  and  are  roportod  furthorwost  in  soutli- 
(>astorn  Utah  in  the  now  almost  uninhahitrd  ri'j:;ioii 
between  the  Kio  San  Juan  and  Rio  (U)h)i'ado.  Al- 
thouj^h  the  rc'irions  west  of  the  hitter  riv(Tliave  been  but 
littk'  exph)red,  it  a})pears  that  they  arc  by  no  m(>ans 
uncommon  th(M'o.  Even  the  recesses  in  tlio  vicinity 
of  the  (f  rand  Canon,  whose  mysterious  depths  were  first 
described  by  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  too  gloomy  and  forbidding  to  afford  the  cliff-dwell- 
ers a  home.  Safety  and  security  against  some  inveterate 
foe  was  ai)parently  one  chief  object  in  view  in  selecting 
places  for  their  abodes,  yet  there  must  always  have  been 
some  reference  to  agriculture  and  a  water  supply. 

Referring  to  a  special  locality,  it  may  he  said  that 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  Mancos  Canon, 
and  in  all  its  subdivisions,  fortress-like  buildings  have 
been  erected  of  rough  hewn  blocks  of  sandstone  in 
shallow  recesses  and  on  narrow  ledges,  often  high  up 
tlie  cliff's  in  almost  inaccessible  situations.  These 
structures,  in  consequence  of  their  position  under  an 
overhanging  vault  of  rock,  are  generally  well  pre- 
served, though  tliey  have  been  abandoned  possibly 
for  several  centuries,  yet  possibly  in  historic  times. 
Not  only  the  stone  walls,  but  also  in  many  cases,  the 
beams  of  the  floors  between  the  different  stories  are 
well  preserved.  Even  wooden  articles,  textile  fabrics, 
l)one  implements,  and  other  articles  are  often  found 
amid  the  debris  which  fills  the  rooms.  It  is  claimed 
that  in  this  region  alone  there  are  as  many  as  five 
hundred  of  these  dwellings. 

As  there  is  but  little  variation  in  tlie  general  char- 
acter of  these  ruins,  a  description  of  one  or  two  ex- 
14 


210 


Sliidi/  of  Xortli  American  ArchaculiKjij. 


Miuplcs  will  siiflic'(»  lo  jjivo  n  soniewlint  oorroct  idcM  of 
till'  typi".  For  this  ])urposo  a  description  by  Mr. 
IIoliiu'S  of  l)uildin<^s  on  two  Icdp's  of  a  dill'  in  Maiu-os 
Canoa  is  selected.     They  are  at  least  eight  luindred 

feet  above  tlio  Hver,  tlu! 
lower  five  hundred  feet  of 
the  hei<.jlit  beinfT  tlie  slop- 
ing debris;  tlio  remainder 
the  cliff  of  massive  sand- 
stone full  of  wind-worn 
niclies,  crevices  and  caves. 
W itliin  one  hundred  feet  of 
the  top  of  the  cliff,  set  in  a 
deep  niclie,  with  arched, 
overhanging  roof,  is  tlie 
upper  house,  its  front  wall 
built  a/)ng  the  very  brink 
Fi«.  74.  Cliff-dwelling  on  the  Rio  of  ashei  r  precipice.  Tliirty 
MuncoB.  feet   below,    in    a   similar 

niche,  is  the  large  house, 
with  a  long  line  of  apertures.  A  section  of  the  clilf 
showing  the  position  of  a  dwelling,  though  not  the  one 
described,  is  given  in  Fig.  74. 

The  lower  house  occup'(>s  the  entire  floor  of  a  niche 
sixty  feet  long,  riuming  back  fifteen  feet  at  its  greatest 
depth.  The  front  walls  are  flush  with  the  precipice, 
and  the  partition  walls  extend  back  to  the  rock  be- 
hind. Portions  of  the  walls  have  fallen  away,  but 
the  main  building,  which  contains  window-like  open- 
ings, is  still  thirteen  or  fourteen  feet  high.  The 
arrangement  of  tlie  rooms  of  the  left  portion  is  some- 
wliat  com))licated,  the  most  striking  feature  being  a 
circular  room.     The   estufa  or  ceremonial   room  was 


77/''  I iihrniniifdiii'  m'  I'lnhhi  Sa'tioii. 


21 


niclio 
re  lite  St 


Homcthiiii;.  as  it  would  seem,  their  cxiU'iiiii^  supersii- 
lioiis  eoiild  not  omit,  howsoever  j^feat  the  (laiij^n- 
whieh  thfcateticd  thi'iii,  or  whatever  luij^ht  he  the 
cost  of  hihor  and  eoiUMMiieiice.  The  iiisich'  of  this 
room  is  eurioiisly  fasliioiied,  with  oll'sets  and  l)ox- 
nhaped  recesses.  It  is  phistered  smoothly;  and  the 
oiitranco  to  it  from  the  left  is  through  a  walled  and 
t^overed  i)assa<j;e  of  solid  masonry,  so  small,  liowever. 
as  to  necessitate  abject  crawling  in  order  to  pass 
throujjh.  The  partition  walls  between  the  rooms  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  built  up  to  the  rock  over- 
lieatl.  The  apertures  in  the  front  wall  are  about  five 
feet  from  the  lloor,  and  may  have  be(>n  intended  for 
some  other  purpose  than  as  windows,  as  they  are 
comparatively  small. 

By  dig;j;in<f,  the  explorers  found,  in  one  of  tlio 
small  rooms  to  the  left  of  the  circle,  a  large  earthen 
vessel,  and  in  the  larg(M*  room  oppositcs  another  of 
the  same  kind.  Tliese  were  of  the  corrugated  or 
coiled  type.  Beneath  the  vessels,  spreatl  out  on  the 
floor,  was  a  large  piece  of  rush  matting,  and  b(Mieatli 
it  a  quantity  of  fine  vegetable  tissue,  made  from  the 
interior  bark  of  some  tree. 

The  rock  between  this  ruin  and  the  one  above  is 
smooth  and  vertical,  the  only  access  to  it  being  by  a 
stairway  cut  in  a  narrow  sloping  face  at  the  extreme 
left,  whieh  lerininat(>s  at  the  top  in  the  v(>ry  doorway 
to  the  dwelling.  The  position  of  this  ruin  is  one,  as 
Mr.  Holmes  terms  it,  "of  unparalleled  security  l)oth 
from  enemies  and  from  the  elements."  The  almost 
vertical  cliff  descends  abruptly  from  the  front  wall, 
and  the  arched  roof  of  solid  stone  projects  forward 
some  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  beyond.     The  house  occu- 


212 


Stiidi/  ojWortli  Anurivan  Archacolof/i/. 


pies  the  entire  floor  of  tlie  recess,  wliicli  is  about  one 
lumdred  and  twenty  feet  long  and  extends  back  only 
ten  feet  at  tlie  deepest  ])oint.  The  rooms  in  this  cas(; 
are  all  formed  by  i)artition  walls  running  squarely 
back  from  the  front,  in  which  are  doors  for  inter- 
communication. While  digging  In.  the  rubbish,  the 
explorers  found  in  one  place  a  (juantity  of  beans,  and 
in  another,  grains  of  corn. 

In  one  of  these  houses,  called  the  "Long  House," 
from  its  long,  straggling,  semicii'cidar  form — situated 
partly  on  the  sloping  talus  at  the  base  of  a  cliff  and 
partly  in  recesses — Mr.  Nord(>nskiold  found,  according 
to  the  plan  he  gives,  no  less  than  fiftcHMi  estufas  or 
kivas.  At  the  extreme  left  is  a  triangular  tower,  the 
cliff  forming  one  of  the  walls,  which  still  stands  at 
its  full  height  of  four  stories,  though  the  uppermost 
room  is  too  small  for  other  use  than  a  place  for 
storage.  The  building  matei'ial  consists  of  the  same 
soft  sandstone  as  the  vault  of  rock.  These  stonvs, 
generally  a  little  larger  than  ordinary  bricks,  and 
seldom  too  large  to  be  handled  withcrut  difficulty,  are 
roughly  hewn  and  cemented  with  mortar.  The  walls 
are  about  one  foot  thick.  The  ascent  from  story  to 
story  appears  to  have  been  by  means  of  stones  pro- 
jecting from  the  walls,  or  strong  pegs  driven  into  the 
latter,  as  nowhere  in  these  ruins,  nor  in  any  of  this 
region,  have  remnants  of  ladders  boon  ft)und,  though 
many  w^ooden  articles  are  well  preserved. 

As  a  rule,  human  remains  are  seldom  found  in  con- 
nection with  ruins  of  this  class.  However,  in  one  in- 
stance, Mr.  Nordenskiold  was  so  forttinate  as  to  dis- 
cover the  remains  of  eight  individuals  among,  or  in 
connection  with,  the  ruins  of  a  single  cliff-dwelling. 


out  ono 
.c'k  only 
liis  cas(! 
^quavely 
31'  inter- 
ish,  tlio 
ans,  and 

House," 
-situated 
cliff  and 
ccording 
^tufas  or 
>wer,  the 
itands  at 
ppcrmost 
jlace    for 
he  sa'nc 
ston.'S, 
Ks,   and 
Ity,  are 
le  walls 
story  to 
nes  pro- 
nto the 
of  this 
though 

I  in  con- 
1  one  in- 
to dis- 


g. 


or  in 


welling. 


Tlic  Iiitcniioiitaiic  ur  I'luhlo  Scii/oii. 


213 


This  ruin  of  th(>  M(>sa  Verde  has  received  the  local 
name  of  "Ste)>EIouse,"  from  the  fact  that  a  stone 
stairway  leads  upward  from  it  to  the  top  of  the  mesa. 
These  remains  were  not  found  in  the  building,  but  in 
the  space  immediately  adjoining,  and  ai3[)ear  to  have 
been  in  shallow,  oval  excavations,  barely  of  sufhcient 
size  to  admit  the  body  on  its  side  after  the  knees  had 
been  drawn  u|)  against  the  breast.  All  appear  to 
have  been  bui'icd  in  this  manitei-. 

One  of  tlie  graves  contained  the  half-mummified 
remains  of  a  child.  It  had  been  Avrai)i)('d  in  a  kind 
of  feather  cloth.  A  grave  near  that  of  the  child  con- 
tained  the  remains  of  an  adult,  which  had  been 
wrapped  in  matting  nuide  of  osi(M's.  Four  earthen 
vessels  had  b(>en  buried  with  the  corpse,  one  of  which, 
a  bowl,  was  turned  over  the  head.  There  were  also 
two  other  bowls  and  a  mug.  A  third  grave  contained 
the  remains  of  an  adult  completely  minnmified.  The 
liead  had  been  coveretl  with  a  skin  cap  and  the  ivot 
with  moccasins  of  the  same  material,  and  the  body 
wrapped  in  a  kind  of  n(>t  of  cords,  spirally  wound 
about  with  strips  of  hide,  on  which  the  hair  was  still 
partly  preserved  when  the  grave  was  open(>d.  The 
wrappings  were  further  securtnl  by  strips  of  yucca 
leaf,  under  which  thick  binicluvs  of  cedar  bast  had 
been  inserted.  Under  the  body  lay  a  mat  of  withes  ; 
the  head  rested  on  a  short,  roiuided  block  of  wood  ; 
another  mat  was  spread  over  it.  The  grave  in  which 
it  was  buried  was  oval  in  form,  as  were  all  the  others, 
and  about  two  feet  deep.  In  front  of  the  face  was  a 
basket  full  of  corn-meal,  covered  by  a  handsome  bowl 
tui'ned  ui)side  down  over  it.  By  the  side  of  th(>  bas- 
ket lay  a  small  ladle,  or  spoon,  and  between  the  two 


214 


SI  mil/  of  \ortli  A  iiicricdii  Ai'rhii(<il(i<iij. 


a  corn-cob.  Both  haski^t  and  ni(>Ml  wcmv  \\o\\  pre- 
BOrved,  the  latter  being-  of  a  slightly  yellowish  color 
and  rather  coarse.  Some  of  the  graves  had  Ixhmi  cov- 
ered by  i)lacing  round  poles  across  tluMu  at  intervals 
of  a  foot  or  so,  and  a  heaviei'  pole  lengthwise  over 
the  iniddlo  of  these.  This  was  covered  with  a  mat, 
on  which  was  placed  a  broad  flat  stone,  and  the  whole 
C()vei'(>d  with  a  layer  of  earth  about  a  foot  in  depth. 
All  the  skulls  show(>d  signs  of  ai'tificial  depression. 

Of  the  ai'ticles  unearthed  at  this  locality  we  note 
th<>  following,  in  addition  to  those  m(Mitione('  :  A 
lai-ge  black  jar;  a  bundle  of  reeds,  probably  intended 
for  arrow-shafts;  a  large  piece  of  flint  of  the  kind 
used  in  manufacturing  arrow-heads;  a  numlxM*  of 
well-preserved  eai's  of  corn  ;  a  ])iec(>  of  cotton  cloth  ; 
som(!  woven  l)askets  of  yucca  ;  pieces  of  a  white, 
kaolin-like  substance,  wrapped  in  coimi  husks  and 
lying  in  the  bottom  of  a  jar,  ))rol)al)ly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  pottery;  the  entire  shell  of  a  ])unip- 
kin. 

If  the  articles  mentioned  wer(>  left  by  the  occupants 
of  this  clitl-dwelling,  their  d(>partur(>  therefrom  can 
not  be  dated  very  far  back  in  th(>  ])ast.  Although  a 
dry  climate,  when^  decay  was  slow,  as  shown  by  the 
l)artly  mummilied  bodies,  the  preservation  of  some  of 
the  articles  mentioned  for  many  centuries  would  seem 
impossible.  HoweviM-,  befoi-e  further  comment,  at- 
tention is  called  to  the  ruins  on  the  plains  and  mesas, 
where  we  may  suppose  the  people  lived  a  more  peace- 
ful life,  and  in  less  a])pr(>hension  of  constant  clanger 
than  is  to  be  inferred  from  those  describetl. 


: 


The  IntcriDitiifdiic  or  I'lnhli)  Section. 


215 


RuiiDi  (HI  the  Platcaufi  and  in  tlw.  ]^ailcys. 

Throughout  most  of  the  Colorado  basin,  ruins  of 
stone  huiklings  are  quite  comi",ion.  Althougli  remains 
of  singh>  structures  are  occasionally  seen,  those  of 
communal  buildings  or  villages  arc  of  most  frequent 
occurrence.  Tiioso  of  this  class  which  have  been 
most  thoroughly  examined  and  described  by  ex[)lorers 
are  chiefly  in  the  drainage  area  of  the  San  Juan,  as 
for  example  on  tlu^  Mvsn  Verde,  in  or  along  the  val- 
leys of  the  Mancos,  Las  Animas  and  Kio  de  la  Plata, 
at  the  Aztec  Spriiigs  in  Montezuma  Valhy  and  in  the 
McElmo  and  IIoviMiweep  canons.  It  is  also  known 
that  th<>y  occur  on  the  wild  plateau  around  the  (Irand 
('a  )n,  along  the  Colorado  Chiquito,  and  in  the  re- 
gion lying  between  the  last  nuMitioned  stream  and  the 
San  .luan  ;  liowev(M',  no  descriptions  of  these  hav(> 
i)cen  ])ublish(Ml,  nor  is  it  known  that  any  of  them 
have  been  thoroughlv  inv(>stigated.  According  to 
Mr.  Nordenskiold,  to  whom  we  are  chiefly  ind(>bted 
for  this  summai'v,  the  western  limit  of  the  Pueblo 
ruins  is  the  one  hundred  and  thirteenth  meridian,  W. 

A  description  of  one  of  the  most  noted  exam))les  of 
the  class,  accompanied  by  an  illustration,  will  ])er- 
haps  convey  to  the  r(>ader  a  more  correct  itlea  of  the 
type  than  any  attempt  at  generalization.  For  this 
l)urpose  we  select  Mr.  Holmes's  d(>scription  of  th(> 
ruins  at  "Aztec  Springs,"'  locatcnl  in  the  depression 
l)etween  the  M(>sa  Verde  and  Late  Moiuitains,  a  short 
distance  south-west  from  Cortez.  The  general  i)lan 
is  shown  in  Fig.  To,  the  whole  group  covering  an  area 
of  about  4<S0,()00  s(|uare  fe(>t.  The  stone  t;sed  is 
chietlv    the    fossiliferous    limestone    which    crops    out 


216 


Stiidi/  ojWorth  Anirriran  Afclui('oU,gy. 


(flu 

ft)  V. 

Eh 


al<)ti<i;  the  l)iise  of  tlie  Mesa  Vei-de,  a  mile  or  more 
away.  As  tlie  amount  of  mason  work  is  estimated  by 
Mr.  Holmes  at  1,500, ()()()  cubic  feet,  the  trans])()rtation 
must  luive  severely  taxed  the  enersries  of  a  people  who 
Avere    themselves    their   only    beasts    of    burden    and 


Fig.  7").     Ruins  at  Azte(!  Springs. 

means  of  ronveyanc(>.  Nevertheless,  the  difficulty  of 
transportation  in  this  case,  except  as  judged  by  the 
amount,  was  not  so  great  as  that  necessary  to  fill  an 
almost  inaccessible  recess,  high  u[)  in  the  side  of  a 
precipice,  with  stone  walls. 

As  will  bo  seen  bv  i"ef(>r(MU'e  to  the  figure,  there  are 


Tin'  Iiitcniionhtiic  or  I'nchlo  Section. 


217 


two  groups  of  rooms,  wliioli,  in  the  plan.  look  liko 
tlio  moslies  in  pi(>ces  of  netting.  Prominent  in  the 
village  are  two  rcctaii.-ular  structures,  one  of  which 
occupies  a  central  position,  whih'  the  other  stands  at 
a  little  distance  on  the  outside.  There  are  two  circul;'.- 
rooms  in  the  left  group,  and  another  in  the  larg(M' 
square  ;  these  are  depressed  in  the  center  and  are  un- 
doubtedly estufas.  The  upper  rectangular  house 
measures  about  one  hundred  by  eighty  f(>et,  and 
stands  witli  the  cardinal  points  to  within  five  degrees. 
The  remaining  walls,  which  are  still  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  f(>et  high,  are  a  little  over  two  feet  tliick,  built 
of  roughly  dressed  stone  apparently  laid  in  mortar, 
and  seem  to  have  l)een  double,  with  a  space  of  s(>ven 
feet  between.  A  number  of  cross  walls  at  rectauirular 
intervals  indicate  that  this  space  was  divided  into 
a])artm(Mits,  as  shown  in  the  plan.  The  interior  space, 
which  is  somewhat  depressed,  Avas  crossed,  as  is 
judged  by  lines  of  fallen  stones,  by  two  partition 
walls. 

The  network  of  fallen  walls  is  so  reduced  that  Mr. 
Holmes  was  at  a  loss  to  determine  whether  they 
formed  a  cluster  of  irregular  apartments  having  low, 
loosely  built  Avails,  o;'  are  the  remains  of  an  imposing 
adobe  structure,  l)uilt  after  the  manner  of  the  "uined 
pueblos  of  the  Rio  Chico  valley. 

The  lower  house,  which  stands  outside  of  tiie  vil- 
lage, is  two  hundred  feet  in  length  by  one  hundred 
antl  eighty  in  Avidth.  The  northern  Avail  is  double, 
the  space  betAveen  the  two — about  seven  feet  Avide — 
being  divided  into  rooms  tAveuty-four  feet  long.  Tlio 
Avails  on  the  other  sides  are  Ioav  and  are  supposed  to 
have  siM'AH'd  simply  to  inclose  the  great  court. 


218 


Stndi/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


Near  a  dry  wjish  tliat  enters  tlie  St.  Elmo  from  the 
south  is  anotlier  ruin  similar  in  character  to  tliat  just 
described.  It  seems  to  have  be(>n  a  compact  village 
or  communal  structure^  consisting  of  a  great  number 
of  rectangular  apartments  and  two  circular  buildings, 
or  towers.  One  of  the  latter  is  especially  interesting 
from  the  fact  that  it  consisted  of  three  concentric 
wails,  the  space  between  the  two  outer  ones — about 
five  feet  in  width — being  divided  into  little  rooms  by 
cross  wall,  or  partitions.  One  of  these  cross  walls, 
still  standing  to  the  height  of  tweb-e  feet,  was  pierced 
])y  a  window-like  opening  some  distance  from  the 
lloor. 

Villages    of   this    type    may  be    illustrated    by  r(>f- 

erence  to  those  still  in- 
habited in  the  Moki  ( Ilopi) 
section.  Fig.  70  is  the 
ground  plan  of  one  group 
of  the  village  of  llano  or 
Tewa  as  given  by  Mr.  Vic- 
tor Mindeleft"  in  his  "Study 
of    Pueblo    Architecture," 

Eighth   Annual   Report  of 
I'iir.  "(i.     Villa<:o  fjruup,  Arizona.    ,         ,,  ,.      » 

t!ie    Jnireau    of    American 

Ethnology. 

Another  tyi)(%  of  which  a  number  of  important 
ruins  have  l)een  discovered,  is  the  true  communal 
pueblo,  consisting  of  one  chief  composite  structure, 
semicircular  or  rectangular,  surrounding  two  or  three 
sides  of  an  o[)en  or  inclosed  area.  These  structures 
consist  of  box-like  rooms  placed  in  three,  four  or  five 
rows  ;  the  inner  row  next  the  inclosed  area  one  story, 
the  next  two  stories,  and  so  on  to  the  outer  one,  rising 


Tin'  IntcniKHiUiuc  or  Pmhlo  Section. 


219 


in  steps  or  terraces.     One  of  tliese,   semicircular  in 
form,  is  shown  in  Fig.  77.     Tlie  largest  and   most  re- 


^s^fflHHR^^ 


/'■■■ 


i!illl;::j,i;,. 


,■■■    i  / • 


;  V 


□DDDd 
DDnDD 

DD 


)f 


^^jl\«llil"i|iL''lilllUlNIMI  iJnll.llllllMKIlia,,///,^^^^ 


}■[•' 


(irouiul  plan  of  the  Pueblo  Benito. 


markable  striicttires  of  this  class  in  the  CJolorado 
basin  are  situated  in  Chaco  Canon,  which  is  drained 
by  the  Rio  San  Juan.  That  shown  in  the  figure, 
known  as  Pu(>blo  Bonito,  is  about  530  feet  long  by 
308  in  width.  The  arrangcMucMit  of  the  rooms  is  not 
so  regidar  in  this  instance  as  in  some  of  the  other 
pueblos.  There  are  also  indications  here  that  tlu^ 
structure  was  not  so  large  at  first,  but  that  two  or 
more  additions  have  been  made  to  it,  from  which  w(> 
jtidge  that  it  w-is  occupied  for  a  considerable  length 
of  tim(\ 

If  we  compare  the  ruins  in  Ch.ico  Cailon  with  the 
clift'-dwellings  in  Mancos,  says  Mr.  Nortk'nskiold,  W(> 
find  several  points  of  resemblance.  In  both  localities 
the  villages  wei-o  fortified  against  attack  :  in  Mancos, 
by    their    site    in    inaccessibl(>    jn-ecipices ;    in    Chaco 


22() 


Sliidy  of  yorfli  Amrricaii  AirlKKohxjj/. 


> 
it 

f,.C. 

it 


Canon,  by  a  liigli  outtM*  wall,  in  wliirli  thort*  wvvo.  no 
doorways.  Bchhul  tlio  outer  wall,  tlio  rooms  do- 
sconded  in  terraces  toward  the  inner  court.  Onv  side 
oi  the  court  was  usually  protecteil  by  a  semicircular 
wall.  The  root's,  which  are  flat  in  both  sections,  were 
construct(Hl  in  the  same  way ;  the  rafters,  which 
formed  the  supi)ort,  were  often  allowed  to  project 
beyond  the  outer  wall  as  a  foundation  for  a  sort 
of  balcony,  and  the  doorways  were  neai'ly  luiiforni  in 
dimensions.  The  pottery  strewn  every-where  in 
Chac(^  Canon  resembles  that  of  the  M(>sa  Verde.  Wo 
are,  therefore,  concludes  the;  wi'iter,  not  without 
grounds  for  assuming  that  the  works  of  the  two  classes 
are  to  be  attributed  to  the  same  people,  a  conclusion 
jienerallv  concuri'ed  in. 


Tlic  Gila  Valley  and  Chihuahua. 


221 


CHAPTER   XV. 


THE    GILA    VALLKV    AND    CHIHUAHUA. 


Passing  to  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Gila  and  valleys  of 
Chihuahua,  we  find  that  the  character  of  the  struc- 
tures changes,  as  here  adobe  is  the  chief  material 
used,  while  stone,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  material 
preferred  in  the  more  northern  regions  alluded  to. 
Here  the  chief  structure  of  a  village  vvas  a  building 
of  more  compact  form,  of  which  the  Casa  Grande,  so 
often  described  and  figured,  may  be  takcMi  as  a,  type. 
The  interior,  consisting  of  three  or  four  stories,  is 
divided  into  rooms,  one  central  in  each  story,  or  at 
least  in  the  lower,  and  hence  without  light,  except  as 
filtered  through  the  other  rooms.  The  numerous 
ruins  along  the  Salado,  so  far  as  the  plans  can  be 
understood  from  the  rubbish  heaps  forming  the  re- 
mains, appear  to  indicate  structures  of  substantially 
the  same  type. 

One  of  the  best  evidences  of  the  somewhat  ad- 
vanced culture  of  the  former  inhabitants  of  this  re- 
gion is  found  in  the  works  of  irrigation  in  southern 
Arizona,  so  well  described  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge  (Am. 
Anthropologist,  July,  1893).  It  appears  from  this 
paper  that  the  ancient  inhabitants  oi'  the  Salado  and 
Gila  valleys  engaged  in  agriculture  by  artificial  irri- 
gation to  a  vast  extent.  Judging  by  the  remains  of 
extensive  ancient  works,  many  of  which  may  still  be 
seen    passing   through    tracts    cultivated  to-day,  and 


2"22  Shidi/  of  Xorlli  Aincriran  Archiuohxjy. 


1 

it 


across  donsoly  wondod  stivMclios,  it  is  safo  to  say  tliat 
the  principal  canals  consti-ncKnl  ami  used  by  the 
former  inhabitants  of  Salado  valley  sii{)plie(l  siitli- 
cicnt  water  to  irrii^atc  at  least  2r)().0()()  acres.  It  is 
evid(Mit  from  this  single  fact  tliat  the  i)eople,  who 
supplied  themselves  with  food  by  such  industrial 
means  as  are  indicuteil  by  this  extensive  syst(Mn  of 
irrigating  canals,  were  on  the  liigli  road  toward  civ- 
ilization. Yet  the  valley  of  liappy  liomes  was  des- 
tined bv  some  dire  calamitv,  probablv  of  savaiie 
warfai'e,  to  be  turned  into  ;i  desert. 

Mr.  Lumholtz  found  in  the  wild,  rugged,  iinin- 
liabited  regions  of  the  Sierra  Madro  numerous  ruins 
usually  built  of  stone  and  perched  on  mountain  tops. 
Occasionally  the  buildings  were  surrounded  by  fortifi- 
cations. Others  also  of  stone  were  observed  in  caves. 
Some  of  these  were  three  stories  high,  furnished  with 
small  windows  and  doors  in  the  shape  of  a  cross. 
Here  and  there  were  stone  terraces  built  across  narrow 
glens,  obviously  intended  for  agricultural  purj^oses. 
Burial  caves  containing  mummies  were  also  dis- 
covered. These  mummies,  some  of  which  still  re- 
tained tlie  hair  and  eyebrows,  are  of  low  stature,  and 
bear  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  Moki  Indians,  who, 
as  well  as  the  Zunis,  have  a  tradition  that  their  ances- 
tors came  from  the  south.  Some  examples  of  the  so- 
called  "intrenched  mountains"  were  observed  i)y  Prof. 
W.  J.  McClee  during  his  visit  to  Sonora  in  1805. 

There  are  numerous  minor  ruins  in  north-eastern 
Sonora,  but  these  are  mostly  comparatively  modern, 
and  apparently  the  remains  of  Indian  (Opata?)  vil- 
lages destroyed  by  the  Apaches.  Near  Carretas,  in 
Chihuahua,  there  are  ruins  of  ancient  habitations 
which    Mr.    Bandelier,   who  examined   them,   thinks 


The  (iila   I'ulhjj  and  ChiliKaliiia 


223 


present  a  difforont  type  from  others  mentioned.  "The 
aj)pearjince,"  he  says,  "whicli  these  ruins  present  is 
slrikin«^ly  different  from  that  of  any  of  tliose  inv«'sti- 
gated  by  me  in  Sonora.  They  resemble  the  ruins 
on  the  CJihi  and  Lower  Sahido,  inasmucli  as  they  con- 
sist of  low  mounds  of  wliite  eartli,  indicating  build- 
iiigs  larger  and  more  substantial  than  those  of 
Sonora,  and  connected  witli  them  were  inclosures. 
The  walls  forming  the  latter  were  embankments  of 
the  same  material  as  the  mounds,  with  some  traces  of 
stonewoi'k.  The  mounds  are  about  five  feet  high,  and 
covered  with  all  kinds  of  well-painted  potsherds  like 
those  found  in  the  ruins  of  north-eastern  Sonora. 
Metates  and  crushing-pins,  besides  pottery,  were  the 
only  manufactured  objects  noticed  by  me  on  the  spot. 
There  are  faint  traces  of  stone  or  rubble  foundations 
on  one  of  the  mounds  com[)osing  this  cluster;  other- 
wise it  is  clear  that  buildings  and  inclosures  were  of 
the  same  kind  of  white  adobe  as  the  walls  at  Casa 
Grande  and  other  ruins  on  the  Gila." 

The  noted  and  oft-mentioned  ruins  of  Casas  Grandes, 
or  "Great  Jlouses,"  are  situated  in  the  western  part  of 
Chihuahua  on  a  small  stream  known  as  the  Casas 
Grandes  river.  These  lie  chiefly  on  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  a  natural  terrace  which  rises  above  the 
level  of  the  river  bottom,  which  is  traversed  by  sev- 
eral gidches ;  some  ruins,  however,  are  fotuid  on 
the  bottom  land.  They  consist  of  the  remains  of 
walls,  the  larger  portions  of  which  have  fallen  and 
crumbled  into  heaps  of- rubbish.  At  some  points,  as 
at  the  corners  and  where  supported  by  partitions, 
tliey  were  still  standing  a  few  years  ago  at  a  height 
of  from  two  to  three  stories,  varying  in  thickness  from 
sixteen  inches  to  four  feet.     Mr.  Bandelier  savs  the 


224 


Stitdi/  iif  XtH'th  Aiinriatn  Archaeolotjy. 


(fit. 


xii'iictiircrt  aro  of  tho  sjinio  make  and  j)att(^rn  as  those 
ill  tho  T('tn[)o  valley,  (icscrilxMl  by  Mr.  Ciishing,  hut 
witli  sotno  oxc'optioiis  arc  largo  and  tho  doorways  of 
(luito  good  si/0.  Tho  air  holos  and  aporturos  for  liglit, 
which,  porhaps,  deserve  tho  name  of  windows,  are 
rectangular,  round  and  oval.     Tho  lintels  of  tho  doors, 

as  well  as  of   the   r(>ctangu- 
_^  lar  windows,  were  of  ^^'ood, 

V"  ^\  consisting  of  (hit  or  half 
round  pi(>ces.  Tho  roofing 
was  similar  to  that  of  tho 
jnioblos.      The    houses    con- 


,f ^      h^i^^-^y-^"'^^^^^^  i^istod  of  from  ono  to  several 


((I^"v-v''V  stories,  and  tho  remains  of 
some  indicate  that  tho  cen- 
tral portions  wore  higher 
than  the  outer  ones.  Tho 
ground  plan  of  the  chief 
group  is  shown  in  Fig.  7H, 


'^pl^'-T  r=j)l    as  given  by  Bandolier.     Mr 
/  ^^^l^J^)\)    J^^i'tlf'tt,    who    visited  those 
-  —  P I        ji)     ruins  th  irty  years  ])revious  to 


-       y  - — y       tho  time  Bandolier  saw  them. 

Fig.  78.    r.round  pla.i  «.f  Casas   ,.,.,n.i,.ks   that,   from   a   close 
(Jrundos.  .         .  »      , 

examination  of  -what  remains 

"of  tho  building  or  buildings,"  he  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  outer  portions  were  not  above  one  story  in 
height,  while  the  central  ones  were  from  three  to  six 
stories.  The  walls,  which  appear  to  have  been  built 
of  sun-dried  blocks  of  mud  and  gravel,  vary  in  thick- 
ness from  sixteen  inches  to  four  feet.  Scattered 
among  the  ruins  are  numerous  household  articles 
and   utensils,  and  Mr.  Bandelier  says  no  place   has 


Till'  (lilii    I'lilh  1/  (1 11(1  Chihiiahun . 


2'2f> 


78, 


biM'ti  thif^  into  without  inctatcs,  jjottory  ami  other 
articles  of  daily  use  coinitij^  to  li}^ht.  He  describes  as 
follows  sonio  structures  Avliicli  were  eiiij^matical  to 
liitn  : 

''Tlier(>  are  structures  whicli  remain  enij^matical  to 
me.  Thes(^  structures  lie  west  and  north-west  of  the 
measurable  portions  of  the  ruins.  They  are  solid, 
elliptical  or  circidar  ».iounds,  of  various  heij^hts,  com- 
posed mainly  of  gravel.  They  sujjj^est  th(^  idea  of 
artificial  platforms  upiM  which  buildiiif^s  were  to  b(> 
erected  ;  but  I  saw  no  trac(>s  of  foundations,  and  the 
level  on  which  th(>y  are  situated  is  already  hi<;her 
than  that  of  the  great  houses  themselves.  Nos.  I  and 
IV  are  still  more  peculiar;  while  the  others  are  low, 
hardly  over  one  or  two  feet  high,  I  rises  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  3.om,  (11  feet).  It  has  heon  excavated  in 
the  center,  and  the  section  shows  nothing  else  but  a 
solid  mass  of  gravel.  It  is  a  mass  of  gravel  with  a 
rim  of  stones  extending  around  its  upper  slopes  at  a 
few  inches  below  the  top,  which  is  Hat  and  tMckly 
strewn  with  fi'agments  of  pottery.  This  artificial  ele- 
vation is  connected  with  a  partly  ruined  inclosure, 
the  interior  of  which  is  free  from  gravel,  and  was 
slightly  moist.  The  inclosure  consists  of  an  embank- 
ment supported  by  a  stone  wall,  similar  to  the  dikes 
near  Baserac  in  Sonora.  The  stone  wall  was  built  on 
the  ^nner  side,  and  the  surface  of  the  area  thus  in- 
closed is  thirteen  hundred  scjuare  meters,  or  a  little 
more  than  one-fourth  of  an  acre."' 

The  same  writer  remarks  : 

"Of  all  the  objects  found  at  the  ruins  of  Casas 
(Irandes,  the  i)ottery  attracts  the  principal  attention. 
15 


226 


Stiidij  of  y<)rtli  American  Arcliacol<)<jij. 


, 


q 
(fit. 

;>. 


Not  that  it  is  any  better  than  tliat  found  in  tlio  ruins 
of  that  section  in  general,  for  it  is  of  the  same  make 
and  type,  but  tlie  number  of  specimens  found  in  a 
good  Stat »  of  preservation  is  striking.  The  decoration 
on  these  vessi^ls — I  liavo  seen  but  very  few  phtin 
ones — derives  its  patterns  from  symbolic  figures  which 
are  like  those  of  the  pueblos  of  New  Mexico.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  painted  pottery,  there  is  also  plastically 
decorated  ware,  but  all  of  this  that  I  have  seen  is  also 
painted.  One  jar  showed  very  crude  corrugations, 
l)ut  still  was  painted  reddish  brown  ;  anotluM"  kind  of 
pottery  had  regular  indentations  carefully  painted  in 
various  colors.  It  may  be  remembered  tliat,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  corrugated  pottery  found  at  Fort  Apaclie,  I 
said  that  it  was  painted,  but  without  regard  to  har- 
mony with  plastic  designs.  Jjastly,  I  have  heard  of 
l)ottery  with  human  figures,  colored  in  alto-relievo, 
but  was  unable  to  procure  any  specimen.  I  was  as- 
sured that  the  figures  are  grossly  oi)scene.  Mr.  Bart- 
lett  has  given  fair  representatives  of  the  Casas 
(Jrandes  pottery.  The  shapes  are  like  those  of  New 
Mexican  puebh)  pottery,  with  the  difference  that  the 
bottoms  are  conv(>x. 

"The  metates  of  Casas  Grandes  differ  from  others 
seen  by  me  in  the  south-west  in  being  much  better 
fabricated,  and  even  sometimes  elaborately  carved. 
They  are  generally  square,  and  nicely  finished,  but  I 
saw  one  of  ci'ude  make.  A  double  metate  of  lava 
was  shown  to  me,  and  Mr.  Bart  left  has  figured  one 
with  legs.  Whatever  crushing-pins  I  saw  were  pris- 
matic, and  not  cylindrical,  as  they  are  further  south. 
I  noticed  mortars  of  lava,  fairly  made,  ami  one  pestle, 
with  the  head  of  a  mountain  sheep  rather  well  sculp- 


Tlie  Gila  Valle;/  and  Chihaalma. 


227 


! 


turcd.  Tlio  last  implement  was  of  syenite.  Stone 
axes  are  like  the  Avell-known  instruments  of  the  kind 
from  Arizona.  I  heard  of  cotton  cloth  found  in  the 
ruins,  and  of  threads  of  yucca  fiber.  I  have  seen 
many  turcjuoise  beads  and  ear  pendants  of  turquois(> 
precisely  like  those  worn  to-day  by  the  Pueblo  Indians 
or  found  in  the  ruins,  also  shell  beads  and  many 
shells,  entire  as  well  as  broken  and  perforated.  The 
following  species  have  been  identified  from  the  copies 
made  by  me  in  color  :  Turritclla  Brodcri plana,  a  species 
from  tlie  Pacific  coast;  Conns  protcus,  probably  from 
the  West  Indies  ;  Conns  regnlaris,  from  the  West  In- 
dies ;  and  a  ColnnibcJla,  locality  not  given.  All  the 
univalves  found  at  Casas  Grandes,  as  far  as  I  know, 
are  marine  shells.  The  finding  of  such  shells  at  a 
point  so  far  away  from  the  sea-coast,  and  nearly  cijui- 
distant  from  tlie  Gulfs  of  Mexico  and  of  California, 
is  a  remarkable  feature,  implying  a  primitive  com- 
merce or  inter-tribal  vrarfare  which  carried  the  objects 
to  the  inland  pueblo  at  Casas  Grandes. 

"Two  interesting  finds  I  still  have  to  report.  One 
is  a  fetich  of  the  ])uma  {Fdis  concolor) ,  'mountain 
lion,'  or  cougar.  The  specimen  was  of  small  size, 
ai)parently  made  of  some  kind  of  actinolite,  and  the 
figure  Avas  exactly  like  the  fiuiches  of  the  mountain 
lion,  called  at  Zuni  'long  tail.'  It  might  have  been 
manufactured  in  New  Mexico,  so  great  is  the  resem- 
blance. Another  piece  was  only  the  head  of  the 
same  animal,  of  larger  size  and  of  the  same  kind  of 
stone.  If  the  body  was  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  head,  the  whole  figur(>  would  have  been  as  lartre 
as  a  small  domestic  cat.'' 

Some  of  the  structur<>s  of  this  group  ))resent  an  in- 


22S 


St  (all/  of  Xurth  Amcn'ran  AirJiaeologi/. 


1 

^5 


terior  arrangomont  (Fig.  79)  •whicli  boars  a  strong 
rosemblaiico  to  tliat  c^  huo  of  the  Central  American 
ruins. 

Cave-   or  clitf-dwellings    arc  found   as   far  south 
as    Casas    Grandes.      Mr.    Bandolier  says    lie    lieard 
them  frequently  spoken  of  in  that  region.     Some  re- 
markable ones  are  said  to  exist  near  the 
Piodras  Verdes,  about  two  days'  journey 
from    Casas   Grandes.     Some   examined 
by    Mr.    Bandolier   on    the    Arroyo    del 
Nombre    de   Dios,    about    thirty-five   or 
forty  miles  south-west  of  Casas  Grandes, 
Fig.  79.  Plan  of  ^^.^  ^^^  ^^^  tbeir  essential  features  similar 

,,„„„„  to  tliose   already  a(>scribed.      "In   front 

of  the  rooms  runs,  almost  along  the 
precipice,  a  wall,  which,  near  where  the  trail  enters 
the  cave  reaches  as  high  as  the  roof,  thus  forming  a 
corridor  with  the  walls  of  tlie  apartments  in  the  roar. 
Where  the  outer  wall  is  lower,  it  is  crowned  with  ir- 
regular battlements.  In  this  purely  protective  or 
defensive  exterior  device,  circular  looplioles  are  so  dis- 
posed as  to  command  the  trail. ' '  The  inner  walls  were 
found  to  be  w(dl  preserved  and  displayed  more  care 
and  neatness  in  construction  than  tliose  further  north. 
The  doorways  resemble  those  of  Casas  Grandes  excejit 
that  they  are  smaller.  It  is  wortliy  of  notice  that  the 
one  figured  by  Mr.  Bandolier  is  without  an  estufa. 

In  regard  to  the  culture  of  this  roigon,  the  author 
last  quoted  remarks  : 

"The  ancien*^  culture  wlncli  flourished  at  ('asas 
Grandes  and  in  its  neigliborhood  was  similar  to  that 
which  exist(>d  on  the  banks  of  the  Gila  and  Salado  in 
Arizona  ;    the  architecture  especially  is  of  the  same 


The   Gila  WiUrij  and  ChihaaJiua. 


2-29 


t^'po.  But  at  Casas  (irandos  tlicro  was  a  marked  ad- 
vance over  aiiy  other  i)ortioii  of  the  south-west  so  far 
visited  ])y  me,  sliowu  particuhirly  in  certain  liousehold 
utensils,  in  tlie  possible  existence  of  stairways  in  tlie 
interior  of  houses,  and  in  the  method  of  construction 
of  irrigating  ditches.  Nevertheless,  the  strides  made 
w(>re  not  important  enough  to  i-aise  the  people  to  the 
level  of  the  more  southern  tribes.  Their  plastic  art, 
as  far  as  displayed  in  the  few  idols  and  fetiches,  re- 
mains ])ehind  that  of  the  Nahuatl,  Tzapoticas,  Mayas, 
etc.  They  seem  to  have  reached  an  intermediate 
stage  between  them  and  the  pueblos,  though  nearer 
to  the  latter  tlian  the  former." 


IVtc  nnilder.<t. 

It  appears  to  l)o  generally  conceded  that  the  modern 
Pueblo  Indians  are  descendants  of  the  cliff-dwellers 
and  people  who  built  the  clustered  villages  on  the 
mesas  and  plateaus  which  have  been  mentioned.  But 
as  yet  no  satisfactory  attempt  to  trace  their  history 
back  of  the  age  of  tliese  structures  has  been  made. 
It  is  known  that  they  are  a  mixed  race,  that  is,  they 
pertain  to  different  linguistic  stocks.  For  instance, 
the  Moki  belong,  at  least  in  part,  to  the  Slioshoni 
stock  ;  while  the  other  pueblos  embrace  the  Kera, 
Tehua  and  Zufii  stocks.  No  relationship  between  the 
latter  three  or  ])etween  either  and  any  other  tribes  has 
been  discovered.  Mr.  Ilodge  and  some  other  students 
of  ethnology  of  this  south-western  section  believe  that 
the  Navajos,  though  like  the  Apaches,  connected  lin- 
guistically Avith  the  Athapascan  oi'  Dene  stock,  were 
at  one  time  cliff-dwellers,  and  present  consideral)le 
evidence  in  support  of  this  opinion. 


230 


iStadi/ of  Xdiili  Aincriaui  AirliaeoUxjn, 


I    .V 


Tlio  origin  of  tlio  cliif-dwelliniTs  and  cave-lioiises, 
and  the  cause  whicli  brouglit  about  tlie  dispeopling 
of  tliose  rosorts  and  the  tliousantls  of  chisterod  vilhiges 
whoso  ruins  aro  scattorod  over  the  Colorado  basin  and 
other  parts  of  the  south-west,  is  generally  supposed 
lo  have  been  chiefly  the  relentless  war  waged  against 
the  people  of  these  sections  by  the  Apaches. 

Major  I*owell  (Thirteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  American  Ethnology),  aft(M'  describing  the 
l)liysical  features  of  the  district,  remarks  as  follows  : 
"These  g(»ographic  conditions,  originating  in  clearly 
defined  geologic  processes,  have  affected  the  habita- 
bility  of  the  tract  since  men  first  appeared  therein — 
indeed,  to  these  conditions  the  peculiarities  of  south- 
western aboriginal  culture  are  to  be  ascril)ed  in  large 
measure."  However,  there  is  nothing  in  the  ruins 
theiHselves  to  indicate  a  materially  dithMvnt  climatic 
condition  than  tlu^joresent,  though  man  probably  inhab- 
ited the  region  lon<j  before  tlu^se  structures  werc^  formed. 

Mr.  Hodge  assumes  that  the  s(>lections  of  the  village 
sites  of  the  pueblos  prior  to  IGSO  were  made  chiefly 
with  reference  to  their  agricultural  pursuits,  which 
depended  on  irrigation,  and  that,  so  far  as  defensive 
motives  were  concerned,  they  related  to  inter-tribal 
broils,  and  not  to  security  against  the  attacks  of  the 
Apaches,  who,  he  thinks,  did  not  enter  upon  the 
scene  previous  to  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards.  Mr. 
Cosmos  MindelefJ',  who  has  devoted  considerable  time 
to  the  study  of  the  jnieblo  architecture,  carries  this 
view  still  further.  Speaking  of  the  ruins  of  Cafion 
de  Chelly,  he  says  : 

"Here,  if  anywhere,  we  should  find  corroboration 
of  the  old  idea  that  the  clitt's  were  the  homes  and  last 
refuge  of  a  race  harassed  by  powerful  enemies  and 


Tlie  Gila  Valh>i  and  Chilnialiiia. 


231 


ig 


finally  drivon  to  tlio  construction  of  dwellings  in  in- 
accossiblo  cliffs,  wliere  a  last  ineficctual  stand  was 
made  against  their  foes,  or  the  more  recent  theorv 
that  they  represent  an  early  stage  in  tlie  dcvelopineni 
of  pueblo  architecture,  when  the  pueblos  were  few  in 
number  and  surround(>d  by  numerous  enemies. 
Neither  of  these  theories  is  in  accord  witli  the  facts 
of  observation.  The  still  later  idea  that  the  clilf- 
dwellings  were  used  as  places  of  refuge  by  various 
pueblo  tribes,  who,  wlien  the  occasion  for  such  us(> 
was  passetl,  returned  to  tlieir  original  homes,  or  to 
others  constructed  like  them,  may  explain  some  of 
the  cliff  ruins." 

He  presents  what  appears  to  be  conclusive  evidence 
that  some  of  the  cliil'-dwellings  were  constructed,  or 
at  least  repaired,  subsequent  to  the  introduction  of 
domestic  animals,  and  hence,  after  the  incoming  of 
tlie  Spaniards.  However,  there  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  historical  proof  that  some  of  the  localities 
were  deserted,  and  some  of  the  pueblos  in  ruins,  at 
the  time  of  Coronado's  expedition  in  1540.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  remains  of  the  cliff-dwellings  to  show 
that  as  a  class  tliey  are  older  than  either  of  the  other 
classes.  Mr.  Mindeleff  is  inclined  to  the  opinion 
that  the  estufa  or  kiva,  which  is  usually  circular  in 
form,  is  a  survival  of  a  more  ancient  custom,  and  not 
a  development  of  this  area.  This  was  the  sacred 
chamber,  in  which  the  religious  and  civil  affairs  of 
the  tribe  or  band  were  transacted,  and  which  also 
formed  a  resort  for  the  males.  Possiblv  [t  is  repre- 
s(>nted  in  the  more  southern  regions  of  the  civ'lized 
tribes  by  inner  chambers  of  the  temples. 

The  presence  in  this  region  of  some  three  or  four 
i^mall,  distinct  linguistic  stocks  is  as  yet  an  unexplained 


232 


Stiidi/  of  North  Anxr/cuii  Airharohx/ii . 


'I 


'50 


plu'uomenon.  Possibly  tliis  condiTioii  is  iliu^  to  the 
saino  g'l'iKM'al  c'aus(>  wliich  foi-ccd  so  many  small 
stocks  to  the  coasts  of  ('alit'oniia  aiui  Oregon.  How- 
ever, it  seems  more  likely,  if  we  may  venture  to  otter 
a  mere  guess,  that  further  study  of  the  languages 
may  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  these  groups  are  frag- 
ments broken  ott'  from  other  larger  stocks,  in  the  distant 
l)ast,  or  remnants  of  those  otherwi-He  extinct.  To  what 
date  the  oldest  evidences  of  occupanrv  of  the  region 
can  be  assigned,  is  a  questioii  to  ^^hich  no  answer 
having  any  claim  to  general  acceptance  can  as  yet  be 
given.  There  is  such  a  uniformity  in  character,  such 
a  sameness  in  rypes,  until  w<'  approach  the  borders  of 
Mexico,  as  to  iiulicate  that  they  are  due  almost  wholly 
to  the  physical  conditions.  All  that  can  be  said  in 
regard  to  the  anticiuity  of  the  works  is  tha'.  the  oldest 
antedat(!  by  several  centuries  the  incoming  of  the 
Spaniards. 

Passing  from  Arizona  into  tliat  part  of  north-west- 
ern Mexico  which  is  included  in  (his  section,  we  jiro- 
ceed  some  distance  toward  the  south-east  b(>fore  any 
marked  change  in  the  archaeological  types  is  ob- 
served ;  th(>re  is,  however,  a  gradual  modification  of 
one  and  a  fading  out  of  the  other.  The  aggregation  of 
cells,  which  constitutes  the  true  pueblo  type,  gradually 
fades  out  as  we  move  southward,  disappearing  by  the 
time  we  reach  C!asas  (Jrandes,  in  Chiliuahua.  It  is 
in  this  region,  also,  that  the  most  southern  exampl«>s 
of  the  clitt'-dwel lings  occur,  so  far  as  known.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  typ(>,  of  which  the  Casa  Grande  in 
the  lower  Gila  valley  forms  a  somewhat  rude  (exam- 
ple, becomes  more  and  more  prominent,  tindergoing 
such  modifications  as  bring  it  nearer  and  nt^ai-er  to 
the  more  statelv  structures  of  the  southern  region. 


Mexican.  Section — Civilization . 


233 


CHAPTER  XV  [. 


MEXICAN     SKCTION CI  VI  MZ  ATIOX. 


Having  dcscnl)ocl  briefly  the  known  antiquities  of 
north-western  Mexico,  wliieh  li(>  along  the  main  route 
in  that  direction,  and  in  a  region  occupied  by  the  nu- 
merous small  tribes  of  the  Sonoran  branch  of  the 
great  Uto-Aztccan  stock,  we  now  enter  what  may  be 
considered  the  Mexican  or  Central  American  section. 
It  was  in  this  section  that  native  culture  reached  its 
most  advanced  stage  in  North  Ainerica,  that  native 
talent  made  its  nearest  approach  to  the  arts  and  cul- 
ture of  the  Old  World. 

It  is  impossible,  with  our  present  imperfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  antiquities,  to  determine  with  certainty 
the  geographical  range  of  this  civilization.  Bancroft 
desigiuites  the  northern  limit  by  "an  irregular  line 
extending  across  the  continent  from  north-east  to 
south-west,  terminating  at  Tampico  on  the  gulf  and 
at  the  ).ar  of  Zacatula  on  the  Pacific."  However,  it 
is  sufficient  for  the  present  purpose  to  state  in  general 
terms  that  it  extended  over  the  southern  hal^'  of  Mex- 
ico and  over  Central  Anierica,*  to  and  including 
Nicaragua. 

This  r(>gion,  when  (ivst  visited  by  the  whites,  was 
inhabited  by  the  following  stocks  :  the  Nahuatl  branch 


■■  Althonch  Yucatan  ami  Chiapas  are  parts  of  the  lorritory  of 
Mexico,  yet  tlirou<;ho!it  this  work  we  shall  inchide  t'nem  utuler  tlie 
term  "Central  America, "  .s  distiiigaished  from  Mexico  proper. 


234 


Sliidi/  itf  StH'Oi  Aiiicriciiii  Afrhiniilixjy. 


of  the  Uto-Azt('f!Ui  family,*  witli  soutluTii  and  central 
Mexico  us  its  chief  locality,  but  with  outlying  branches 
in  CJuatemala,  Nicaragua  and  San  Salvador;  and  the 
Maya,  occupying  th(>  ])eninsula  of  Yucatan  and  a 
large  portion  of  Chiapas  and  (iiuatemala,  Avith  an  out- 
lying branch  (Iluastecas)  on  th.e  Jvio  Panuco,  norili 
of  Vera  Vvw/..  These  two  were  the  heading  and  great 
stocks  of  this  region.  Next  to  these  we  miglit  name, 
perhaps,  the  Zapotec-Mixtec  stock,  located  chiefly  in 
the  province  of  Oaxaca.  Besides  tliese  th(>re  wer(>  a 
number  of  stocks  of  limited  extent,  as  the  Otomies, 
in  central  Mexico  ;  the  Tarascos,  in  Michoacan  ;  the 
Totonacas,  in  the  state  of  Vei-a  (-ruz  ;  the  Chapanecs 
and  their  allies,  chiefly  in  C'hiapas,  etc. 

Although  the  question  of  the  origin  of  this  civiliza- 
tion will  be  briefly  discussed  in  a  future  chapter,  it  is 
necessary,  in  order  that  the  questions  arising  in  re- 
gard to  the  ruins  to  be  described  may  be  understood, 
that  some  notices  be  giviMi  here  of  the  character  of  this 
civilization,  and  that  mention  be  made  of  certain  im- 
portant traditions  which  have  b(>en  generally  accepted 
as  based  oil  truth,  though  evidently  fictitious  in  many 
of  their  details. 

The  pre-('oluinbian  history  of  this  region,  which  is 
given  by  the  early  Spanish  authorities  and  their  more 
recent  collators,  with  abundant  details,  rests  on  con- 
fused traditions  and  (piestionable  records,  mixed  with 
legendary  and  mythological  ndations,  and  is  full  of 
obscurity  and  doubt.      Prescott,  striving  to  find  sonu* 


■1  ills  term  is  uscl  in  the  st'iiso  indiriitcil  l>y  P>u8climaiin  of  rela- 
tioiisliip  botwiH'ii  Niiliautl  and  SlioKhuni  linguistic  groups.  It  is 
I)rop('r,  however,  to  state  tiiat  Major  I'owi'll  expresses  some  do\ibt  as 
to  the  sul'iciencv  of  the  evidenoeon  whieh  thisconihination  is  based. 


Mcriroii  Section — ( 'Irilizntloii . 


2:jr) 


lirtii  jjrouml  on  wliieli  to  stand,  brieHv  suiniuuri/rs  us 
follows  : 

"Of  those  races,  tlie  most  conspicuous  \vcr(>  tli<' 
Toltccs.  Advancing  from  a  northerly  direction,  but 
from  what  region  is  uncertain,  they  entered  the  terri- 
tory of  Anahuac,  pi-obably  before  the  close  of  the 
seventh  century.  Of  cotirse  little  can  be  gleaned 
with  certainty  respcK'ting  a  people  whose  written 
records  have  p(>rish(>d,  and  who  are  known  to  us  only 
through  the  traditionary  legends  of  the  nations  that 
succeeded  them.  By  the  general  agreement  of  these, 
however,  the  Toltecs  were  W(>1I  instructed  in  agricul- 
ture and  many  of  tlie  most  useful  mechanic  arts ; 
were  nice  workers  of  metals  ;  invented  the  complex 
arrangement  of  time  adopted  by  the  Aztecs  ;  and,  in 
short,  were  the  true  fountains  of  the  civilization  which 
distingtiished  this  part  of  the  continent  in  later  times. 
They  established  their  capital  at  Tula,  north  of  the 
Mexican  valley,  and  the  remains  of  extensive  build- 
ings were  to  be  discerned  i.here  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest.  The  noble  ruins  of  religious  and  oth(>r 
edifices,  still  to  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  New  Spain, 
are  referred  to  this  people,  whose  name,  Toltec,  has 
passed  into  a  synonym  for  architect.  Their  shadowy 
history  reminds  lis  of  those  primitive  races  who  pre- 
ceded the  ancient  Egyptians  in  the  march  of  civiliza- 
tion,  fragments  of  whose  monuments,  as  thev  are 
seen  at  this  day,  incorporated  with  the  buildings  of 
the  Egyptians  tlumiselves,  give  to  these  latter  the  n\)- 
pearance  of  almost  modern  constructions. 

"After  a  period  of  four  centuries,  the  Toltecs,  who 
had  extended  their  sway  over  the  remotest  borders  of 
Anahuac,  having  been  gn^atly  reduced,  it  is  said,  by 
famin(>,  p(>stilence  and  unsuccessful  wars,  disappeared 


2:i(> 


St  Kill/  of  North  Anurican  Arrlmfoloijij. 


rv 
,5 

I 


from  the  land  as  silently  and  niystcriously  as  they  had 
entered  it.  A  few  of  tlu'in  still  lingered  behind,  but 
much  the  greater  mmiber,  probably,  spread  over  the 
region  of  Central  America  and  the  neighboring  isles; 
and  the  traveler  now  speculates  on  the  majestic  ruins 
of  Mitla  and  Palen(iue,  as  possil)ly  the  work  of  this 
ext raordin a ry  people , 

"After  the  lapse  of  another  hundred  years,  a  numer- 
ous and  rude  tribe,  called  the  Chichiniecs,  entered  the 
deserted  country  from  tJie  far  north-west,  They  W(>ro 
speedily  followed  by  other  races,  of  higher  civiliza- 
tion, perhaps  of  the  same  families  with  the  Toltecs, 
whose  language  they  appear  to  have  spoken.  The 
most  notc^d  of  these  wei-e  the  Aztecs  or  Mexicans, 
and  the  Acolhuans.  The  hitter,  being  better  known 
in  later  times  by  the  name  of  Tezcucans,  from  their 
capital,  Tezcuco,  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  Mexi- 
can lake,  were  peculiarly  fitted,  by  their  comparatively 
mild  religion  and  nuinners,  for  receiving  the  tincture 
of  civilization  which  could  be  derived  from  the  few 
Toltecs  that  still  remained  in  the  country.  This,  in 
their  turn,  they  communicated  to  the  barbarous  ("hic- 
himecs,  a  large  portion  of  whom  became  amalgamated 
with  the  new  settlers  as  one  nation.  , 

"Availing  themselves  of  the  strength  derived,  not 
only  from  this  increase  of  numbers,  but  from  their 
own  superior  refinement,  the  Acolhuans  gradually 
stretched  their  empire  over  the  ruder  tribes  in  the 
north  ;  while  their  ca})ital  was  filled  with  a  numerous 
population,  busily  employed  in  numy  of  the  more  useful 
and  even  elegant  arts  of  a  civilized  community.  In 
this  palmy  state  they  were  suddenly  assaulted  by  a 
war-like  neighbor,  the  Tepanecs,  their  own  kindred, 
and  inhal)itants  of    the   same  valley  as    themselves. 


Mixlcdii  Sicfitiii — ( 'in'lizafi 


on . 


2'.\: 


Their  provinces  were  overrun,  their  armies  heateii. 
their  king  assassinated,  and  the  flourishing  city  of 
Tezcueo  became  tlie  ])rize  of  tht;  victor.  From  this 
abject  condition  tlie  uncommon  abilities  of  tlie  young 
])rince,  Nezahiialcoyotl,  th(>  rightful  heir  to  tlu^  crown, 
backed  l)v  the  efticient  aid  of  his  Mexican  allies,  at  length 
redeemed  the  state,  and  oi)ened  it  to  a  new  career  of 
prosperity,  even  more  brilliant  than  the  former. 

"The  Mexicans,  with  whom  our  history  is  princi- 
pally concerned,  came  also,  as  we  have  seen,  from  the 
remote  regions  of  the  Nortli — the  populous  hive  of 
nations  in  the  New  World,  as  it  has  been  in  the  Old. 
Th(y  arrived  on  the  borders  of  Anahuac  toward  the 
beginning  of  the  thirt(>enth  century,  some  time  after 
the  occupation  of  the  land  by  the  kindred  races.  For 
a  long  time  they  did  not  establish  themselves  in  any 
permanent  residence,  but  continued  shifting  their 
quarters  to  different  parts  of  the  Mexican  valley, 
enduring  all  the  casualties  and  hardships  of  a  mi- 
gratory life.  On  one  occasion  they  were  enslaved  by 
a  more  powerful  tribe,  but  their  ferocity  soon  madf* 
them  formidable  to  their  masters.  After  a  series  of 
wanderings  and  adventures  which  need  not  shrink 
from  comparison  with  the  most  extravagant  legends 
of  the  heroic  ages  of  antiquity,  they  at  length  halted 
on  the  south-western  borders  of  the  principal  lake,  in 
the  year  13'25.  There  they  beheld,  perched  on  the 
stem  of  a  prickly  pear,  which  shot  out  fro  .i  the  crevice 
of  a  rock  that  was  washed  by  the  waves,  a  royal  eagle 
of  extraordinary  size  and  beauty,  with  a  serpent 
in  his  talons,  and  liis  broad  wings  opened  to  the 
rising  sun.  They  hailed  the  auspicious  omen,  an- 
nounced by  an  oracle  as  indicating  the  site  of  their 
future  city,  and  laid  its  foundations  by  sinking  ])iles 


2;i8 


iSludy  of  Xoiih  Anitririiii  Airh(ni)l>t<ii/. 


r 
(3 

■J? 


into  the  shallows,  for  tlu'  low  m.'irsln's  were  half  buried 
uiuUm"  water." 

Although  Proscott's  woi'k  lias  hccii  suixM'sodod  in 
sonuj  rrsjjects  bv  iho  niort'  critical  inv<'stigations  of 
subsoqiiont  years,  ho  jjivcs  substantially  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  the  traditions  divested  of  tlieir  mythological 
colors.  Although  the  Toltecs  are  still  looked  upon 
l)v  some  scholars  in  the  same  light  as  repres(>nted  by 
])receding  historians — tliat  is,  as  a  distinct  and  real 
people  known  by  that  nam(> — there  is  a  gen(M'al  ten- 
dency to  the  opinion  that  there  was  no  distinct  tribe 
or  p(>ople  of  this  name,  but  that  it  refers  to  the  an- 
cestors of  some  one  or  more  of  the  Nahuatl  or  Mava 
tribes.  Dr.  Brinton  goes  so  far  as  to  deny  tlnnr  his- 
torical existence,  hjoking  u|)on  them  as  fabulous. 
"They  have,"  he  says,  "hovered  about  the  dawn  of 
Americaii  history  long  enough.  ...  It  is  time 
they  were  assignee!  their  proper  i)lace,  and  that  is 
among  the  jnirely  fabulous  creations  of  the  imagina- 
tion, among  the  giants  and  fairies,  the  gnomes  and 
sylphs,  and  other  such  fancied  beings  which  in  all 
ages  and  nations  the  ])opular  mind  lias  loved  to 
create." 

Although  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  much  that  has 
been  stated  in  regard  to  them  by  the  early  Spanish 
writers  is  i)uro  fable  or  mythology,  yet  the  conclusion 
reached  by  Dr.  Brinton  is  extreme  and  scarcely  justi- 
fied by  tlie  data,  as  there  were  beyond  doid)t  people  who 
were  indicated  by  the  term  "Toltecs,"  people  who  did 
erect  some  of  the  works  ascribed  to  them,  people  w'ho 
were  real  and  did  in  fact  exist. 

It  may  be  that  the  term  was  applied  originally  to  a 
community  or  tribe  somewhat  advanced  in  culture. 


Mexican  Srrfiijti — ( 'irlllz<itinn . 


23!  t 


ami  afterward  uncd  to  dcsijjnatc  the  aiiiliors  of  moiiu- 
nu'iits  wliosc  Idiildcrs  wcro  nuknown.  It  is  (juito 
|)rol)al)l(^  that  it  incliKU'd  the  MayaH,  though  ai)pli('d 
to  th(^  huihlcrs  of  works  in  central  Mexico,  without 
identifying  tliem  with  this  peoph'.  In  other  wortls, 
the  term  stands  about  upon  the  same  basis  as  tliat 
of  "mound-buihlers,"  as  formerly  used  in  reference 
to  the  anci(>tit  works  and  ancient  people  of  tlie  Missis- 
sij)])!  vall(>y.  The  latter,  when  thoroughly  probed, 
have  disappeared  from  view,  and  in  their  plac(^  we 
liavo  the  ancestors  of  the  Indians  found  inhabiting 
the  country.  So  it  is  with  tin*  Toltecs  ;  when  thor- 
oughly probed,  tlu'y  fad<^  from  view  and  we  see  dimly 
some  i)rimary  incoming  branch  of  tli(^  Aztec  people, 
or  the  Maya  tribes  on  their  way  southward,  or  both. 
Clavigero,  in  his  "History  of  Mexico,''  although  ham- 
])er(Ml  by  the  popular  notion,  attemi)ts  to  consider 
them  honestly  and  candidly,  but  the  doubt  upon  his 
mind  is  api)ar(Mit  throughout  the  liistory  given  by 
him.  After  disposing  of  them  as  usual  by  the  terrible 
calamities  which  befell  them,  he  closes  with  thes<' 
words:  "These  imperfect  accounts  of  the  Toltecs 
are  all  wo  think  proper  to  be  told  here,  omitting  many 
fabulous  relations  introduced  by  other  liistorians.*' 
They  come  upon  the  stage,  and,  having  performed 
their  role,  ])ass  off,  to  arise,  however,  phoenix-like, 
from  their  ashes  in  new  forms  and  under  new  names. 
When  they  disappear  suddenly,  the  Aztecs  are  broiigiit 
upon  the  stage.  As  the  former,  though  so  cultured, 
disappear  without  any  remnants  of  a  language  dis- 
tinct from  thai  of  their  successors,  it  seems  more 
rational  to  consider  the  two  people  as  one,  or  that 
thev  had  i)ass(>d  on  to  be  known  thereafter  as  ^Favas. 


240 


Stmli/  of  yortJi  American  Archorology. 


•I 

it: 
i: 

U 


The  question  to  be  solved  in  regard  to  tliem  is, 
"Who  were  they?,"  We  are  inclined,  as  will  be 
seen  further  on,  to  agree  with  Mr.  Bandelier  in 
identifying  tliein,  in  part,  with  the  ancestors  of  the 
Mayas. 

Desire  Charney  is  inclined  to  run  to  an  extreme  di- 
rectly opposite  to  that  reached  by  Dr.  Brinton.  Judg- 
ing by  his  last  work,  "The  Ancient  Cities  of  the  New 
World,"  he  is  disposed  to  see  in  every  ruin  of  southern 
Mexico  and  Central  America  which  shows  any  evi- 
dence of  advanced  culture  the  work  of  the  Toltecs. 

The  Chichi mecas  are  no  longer  considered  a  dis- 
tinct people  or  tribe,  the  name  having  been  applied, 
as  is  supposed,  to  the  rude  and  uncultured  people  of 
central  Mexico.  Nevertheless,  it  is  possible,  notwith- 
standing this  general  conclusion  of  historians  and 
linguists,  that  the  term,  as  originally  applied,  had  a 
more  definite  meaning,  but  to  whom  it  was  limited,  if 
this  be  true,  can  not  bo  determined. 

The  civilization  of  this  section  of  North  America 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  limited  by  tribal  or 
stock  boundaries,  but  seems  to  have  prevailed  througli- 
out  the  entire  r(>gion,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it 
was  occupied  by  some  seven  or  eight  different  stocks. 
It  is  true,  there  are  minor  difl'erences  in  the  types  of 
the  different  districts  inhabited  by  the  different  fami- 
lies, but  tluM'e  is  such  a  general  similarity  as  to  con- 
vince the  student  that  it  is  one  civilization,  having 
oi:e  origin,  developed  in  one  age  or  era,  and  that  the 
cultures  of  the  different  districts  are  not  parallel  civ- 
ilizations which  have  developed  i'i'^<^,  by  side,  as  main- 
tained by  Mr.  Bancroft. 

As  evidence  of  this,  we  have  only  to  refer  to  the 


lo 


the 


Mexican  Section — <  'irilization . 


241 


calondiir  system  whicli  prevailed  tlii'ougliout  tlie  en- 
tire n^gion  embraced  in  this  section,  anil  Avhicli  formed 
one  imj^ortant  and  remarkable  item  of  their  civiliza- 
tion. This  is  of  such  a  ]ieculiar  character  as  to  forbid 
the  idea  that  it  could  have  developed  independently  in 
diiVerent  districts.  It  is  known  to  have  been  in  use 
among  the  Nahuas  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  and  other 
tribes  of  the  same  linguistic  family  resident  in  Mez- 
titlan,  8oconusco,  Guatemala  and  Nicaragua;  that  it 
prevailed  among  the  Mixtecs  ;md  Zapotecs  ;  that  it 
Avas  in  vogue  among  the  Totonacas  of  the  state  of 
Vera  Cruz  ;  the  Pirindas,  Tarascos  and  the  Matlazin- 
cas  of  Michoacan ;  the  Chapanecs  of  Chiapas  and 
Nicaragua,  and  the  various  Mayan  tribes  in  Central 
America.  It  is  also  known  that  it  was  in  use  among 
the  builders  of  the  ruined  cities  of  Palenque,  Copan 
and  Tikal. 

Briefly  stated,  this  sj-stem  was  as  follows :  The 
year  consisted  of  305  daj's,  divided  into  two  unequal 
parts,  viz.,  3G0  days,  or  the  year  proper  divided  into 
eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each  ;  and  five  inter- 
calated days,  which  were  added  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  or  last  month,  to  comjilete  the  number 
30').  Each  of  the  twenty  days  of  the  month  had  its 
own  pro])('r  name  ;  tlie  numbering,  however,  was  not 
from  1  to  20,  but  irom  1  to  13,  beginning  again  with 
the  unit.  It  follows  from  this  method  that  a  day 
bearing  both  the  same  name  and  tlie  same  number  will 
not  r(>cur  until  13  months  liavo  elapsed.  This  gives 
a  cycle  or  period  of  260  days,  which  appears  to  have 
been  more  in  use  as  a  ceremonial  or  n^ligious  period 
")'  ilhxn  the  secular  year  of  365  days.  The  days  were 
IG  ^ 


242  Study  of  Xorth  American  Archaeology. 

also  imlicatp  i  by  symbols.  Tlio  day  symbols  in  UPf? 
amons''  the  Mavas  iivv  shown  in  the  usual  form  and 
order  in   Fig.   80,  with  the  names  attached.     Those 


»Kbaj  Kii         t'^  -;''4'» 


O  0  ©  Q 

It-..  IK  *Kbaj  Kin 

c.-i  Mln.k  Unul         Muiat  0: 


©  @  ©  o  © 


CdinAb       CAuAC         Vivi 


^^ 


CS 


^ 


*^^l^i^ 


Fig.  80.    Maya  day  symbols.  Fig.  81.    Mexican  day  symbols. 

in  use  among  tlu'  Mexicans  are  sliown  in  l-Mg.  SI. 
The  names  of  the  Mexican  days  in  their  pi'oper  order 
ar(>  : 


1.  Cipactli. 

2.  Ehecatl. 

3.  Calli. 

4.  Cuetzpallin, 
').  Cohuatl. 

t).  Mi(i[uiztli. 

7.  Mazatl. 

5.  Tochtli. 
9.  Atl. 

jO.  Itzcuintli. 


11.  Ozomatli. 

12.  M.ilinalli. 

13.  Acatl. 

14.  Ocelotl. 

15.  Quauhtli. 

16.  ('ozca(]uauhtli. 

17.  Ollin. 
IS.  Tecpatl. 

19.  Quiahiutl. 

20.  Xochitj. 


As  given  in  the  figure  they  are  as  follows,  taking 
the  upper  line  from  left  to  right,  then  the  second  in 
the  same  way,  and  so  on:  first  line,  Ehecatl,  Calli, 
Cuetzpallin,  Cohuatl ;  second  line,  Ttzcuintli,  Ozomatli, 
Malinalli,  Acatl ;  third  line,  Tecpatl,  Quiahiutl, 
Xochitl,  Cipactli ;  fourth  line,  Mi(piiztli,  Mazatl, 
Tochtli,  Atl ;  fifth  line,  Ocelotl,  Qnauhtli,  Cozca- 
(juauhtli,  Olliii. 


Mexican  Section — Civilization . 


248 


It  follows,  as  a  necessary  result  of  this  system,  thav 
without  arbitrary  change  the  years  would  always  be- 
gin with  one  of  four  certain  days,  and  no  others, 
thes(>  four  following  one  another  in  regular  order. 

There  were  other  peculiarities  of  this  system,  but 
what  has  been  mentioned  is  sufficient  to  convince  the 
reader  that  the  calendars  containing  these  peculiai'- 
ities,  though  found  in  use  among  the  tribes  of  different 
linguistic  stocks,  must  have  had  a  common  origin.  It 
is  also  sufficient  to  show  one  phase  of  the  civilization 
of  the  section  now  under  consideration. 

It  is  ijrobable  the  calendar  system  grow  out  of  the 
method  of  enumeration  which  prevailed  among  the 
same  tribes.  The  numbers  from  1  to  11  had  distinct 
names;  from  12  to  19  the  count  was  by  additions  t<» 
10,  then  followed  20  with  a  distinct  name.  Above  20 
tlu!  count  was  basetl  on  the  vigesimal  system,  20,  ^0, 
400  and  8000  being  the  multiples  used  as  counters. 
It  is  therefore  a  just  inference  that  the  calendar  sys-. 
tern  grew  out  of  the  numeral  system,  or  the  reverse. 

The  advance  in  agriculture  corresponded  in  some 
degree  to  tlie  ])rogress  on  other  lin(>s,  though  not  so 
gt'eat  as  in  some.  The  increase  in  popidntion  and 
adoption  of  sedentar}'^  habits,  the  lack  of  fish-supply- 
ing streams  and  lakes,  except  in  a  few  limited  locali- 
ties, and  the  diminution  of  game  and  lack  of  domestic 
animals,  made  it  necessary  to  depend  in  a  very  largo 
degree  upon  tlie  products  of  tl;o  soil  for  su!)sistence. 
Maize,  as  among  other  aborigines  of  the  continent, 
was  the  chief  product  and  the  chief  reliance  for  food. 
Although  the  method  of  cidtivation  was  compara- 
tively rude,  the  people  had  learned  the  nec(>ssi(y  of 
keeping  the  fields,  which  w»m"(>  usually  small  and  scat- 


244 


Stndij  of  ^'oi'tk  Ainvrican  Archacologij. 


!f: 


'i 

1 


U 


tered,  free  from  "svoeds,  and  ftf  cultivating  tlie  crop. 
In  the  most  advanced  sections  the  fields  were  sur- 
rounded by  hedges,  ditches  or  fences,  and  irrigation 
was  n^sorted  to  in  dry  seasons  where  practicable. 
The  cultivation  of  cacao;  maguey  (aloe),  cotton, 
l)eans,  pepper  and  certaiii  native  fruits  was  also  car- 
ried on  extensively.  This  labor  was  deemed  honor- 
able, and  in  most  tribes  all  except  the  soldiers,  nobles 
and  priests  were  employed  in  it ;  even  the  inhabitants 
of  the  cities  were  engaged  to  some  extent  in  cultiva- 
ting tlie  soil.  The  work  was,  at  least  in  some  sections, 
cliiefly  done  by  the  men.  Pxes  were  domesticated, 
fiom  which  both  honey  for  consumption  and  wax  for 
use  in  various  arts  were  collected. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Nahuatl  tribes  had  made 
greatest  progress  in  the  mechanical  arts,  excepting 
tiioso  relating  to  architecture.  If  the  statements 
made  by  early  writers,  and  repeated  even  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  bo  accepted  (though  caution  in  this  respect  is 
suggested) ,  the  Mexicans  may  be  said  to  have  reached 
the  age  of  bronze.  !Many  weapons,  utensils  and  imple- 
ments were,  it  is  said,  manufactured  of  this  alloy  of  cop- 
per and  tin.  Gold,  silver,  lead  and  copper  were  worked 
by  founding  and  smelting  into  various  articles  of  use  or 
ornament.  I^  is  even  affirmed  tliat  they  could  mix  the 
metals  in  such  a  maniier  that  the  feathers  of  a  bird  or 
the  scales  of  a  fish,  in  their  imitative  objects,  would  be 
alternatidy  of  gold  and  silver.  But  it  must  bo  said  that 
none  of  the  objects  sliowing  this  wonderful  skill  have 
been  preserved  as  witnesses  to  the  truth  of  the  very 
doubtful  statement.  Nevertheless,  it  mu-t  be  admitted, 
as  shown  by  a  study  of  the  articles  of  gold  and  other 
metals  of  the  province  of  fUiiriqia,  on  the  Isthmus, 


Mfxicaa  Section — Civilization . 


245 


crop. 

3  sur- 

jation 

cable. 

otton, 

o  car- 

lionor- 

noblcs 

)itants 

ultiva- 

ctions, 

icatecl, 

ax  for 

.  iiiade 
;epting 
emonts 
le  prcs- 
)cct  is 
ached 
imple- 
of  cop- 
worked 
use  or 
inirvthe 
))ird  or 
oukl  be 
lid  that 
11  have 
le  very 
mitted, 
d  other 
thmus, 


that  some  of  tlio  aiu-icnt  people  (»!'  this  southern  re- 
gion liad  discovered  the  art  of  casting  metals  in 
molds.  It  is  in  this  soutluM'ii  r  gion  that  tlie  ceramic 
art  ajjpears  to  have  r(>ached  its  i.iost  advancinl  stag(\ 
However,  that  pottery  was  manufactiiivd  to  a  very 
large  extent  by  the  early  inhabitants  of  southern 
Mexico,  is  shown  by  the  vast  nunibei'  of  sherds  and 
broken  vessels  found  about  the  ruins  of  Teotihuacan, 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  at  other 
l)oints. 

That  the  ancient  people  of  this  region  had  made 
considerable  advance  in  the  art  of  sculpture,  covering 
a  wide  range  of  subjects,  illustrating  various  styles  of 
treatment  and  methods  of  execution,  is  shown  by  the 
numerous  articles  found  among  the  ruins.  Among 
the  more  imi)ortant  classes  of  subjects  independently 
sculptured  are  the  human  figure  entire,  often  of  colos- 
sal size  and  ])rofusely  ornamented,  animal  forms,  and 
compoimd  and  fancifid  life-forms  of  endless  varieties  ; 
these  subjects  ai'o  also  embodied  in  cylinders,  disks, 
masks,  tablets,  boxes,  vases  and  ornaments.  The 
nunibcM"  of  sculptured  objects  in  this  section,  includ- 
ing those  destroyed,  ihose  hidden  in  the  soil,  and  yet 
buried  beneath  the  ruins,  .md  those  which  have  been 
discovered,  must  have  been  very  great.  Painting  was 
another  art  in  which  the  aborigines  of  this  region  had 
made  remarkabl(>  ])r()gress.  This  is  shown,  not  only 
by  the  f(>w  remaining  pr(>-Columbian  Maya  and  M(\\i- 
can  manuscripts,  but  also  by  the  numerous  partially 
obliterated  desiijns  on  the  walls  of  crumblin;j  edifices. 
It  seems  to  have  been  a  common  practice  in  some  sec- 
tions to  finish  C(>rtain  important  surfaces,  such  as 
lintels,  door-jambs,  etc.,  in  claliorate  designs,  consist- 


24«)  Stndi/  of  Xinih  Amrrlcaa  Arrliacologi/. 


X 


LI 


iiiir  fliic'flv  (if  lilV-fonus  more  <>r  h'ss  convcMirKMially 
troatoel.  TIu'v  seem  also  to  liav<>  takon  tlolig'lit  in 
fcatluM'-woi-k,  Avliich  was  carried,  in  some  of  tlu>  trihes, 
to  tlie  liiu-liest  (lej;-ree  of  jjerfection. 

Some  of  tli(>  tribes,  especially  of  the  ^'aliuatlaii 
ami  ^Fayaii  ^'roups,  liad  made;  a  somewhat  clos(>  ap- 
j)i-oach  ill  their  symbolic  or  picture  writing  to  true 
phonetic  cliaractors, 

A^  we  can  not  ])roperly  illustrate  the  'Mexican 
liiero'^lyphs  or  symbols  without  the  introduction  of 
colored  drawings  on  a  scale  too  largo  for  our  page, 

brief  reference  will  be 
made  only  to  the 
Maya  hiiM-oglyphs, 

The  example  shown 
in  Fig.  82  is  part  of 
the  inscription  on  the 
fight  slab  of  the  Tablet 
of  iiie  Cross,  at  Palen- 
que.  Notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  but  few 
of  the  characters  have 
been  determined,  the 
direction  in  which  the 
inscription  is  to  be 
read  is  known.  It  be- 
gins   with    tlm    largt^ 

symbol  in  the  upper 
V']''.  S2.     Part  iif  llic  iiiKcriptiou  of  the,    »    ,         ,  ,.  , , 

'P  1 ,  f    f  .1     /■         i>,    .    ,,  l(>ft- hand  coi'ner  or  the 

lal)I('tof  till!  (  ross,  faluiK^iu'. 

left  slab.  This  c*>vers 
the  space  of  four  syml)ols  of  the  ordinary  si/.e.  Each 
of  the  following  seven,  reading  downward,  covers  two 
spaces,  the  whole  being  count(>d  as  two  columns.     The 


I 


Mexican  Section — Civilization . 


247 


liavo 
,  tho 
•h  tho 
to  bo 
It  bo- 
largo 
iippor 
>t'  tho 


third  and  foui'th  coliiniiis,  in  wliich  the  characters  are 
separate,  are  read  from  h^ft  to  riglit,  two  and  two,  or  by 
])airs,  from  the  top  downward,  and  th(^  tifth  and  sixtli 
columns  follow  in  the  same  order.  Tho  six  columns 
of  the  right  slab,  tho  lower  half  of  which  is  shown  in 
the  cut,  are  to  be  road  in  tho  same  order. 

Although  the  characters  shown  in  tho  cut  are  too 
imperfect  for  critical  study,  a  few  can  be  determined 
and  one  or  two  important  facts  ascertained.  For  in- 
stance, it  is  known  that  the  balls  or  large  dots  and 
short  lines,  mostly  vertical,  at  the  ](>ft  of  the  charac- 
ters, are  numerals,  each  ball  counting  1  and  each  line 
5,  thus  one  ball  and  one  lino  6  ;  three  balls  and  two 
lines  v.],  etc.  The  top  symbol  of  the  left  column  in 
tho  cut  is  an  oval  containing  a  kind  of  cross  and  four 
<lots,  and  stands  for  tho  Maya  day  Lamat.  Tho  two 
linos  and  ball  at  the  left  denote  11.  This  is  therefore 
tho  day  11  Lamat.  Tho  character  immediately  to  tho 
right — Top  of  second  column — signilies  tho  Gth  day  of 
tho  month  Xnl.  This  falls  on  tho  Gth  day  of  the  Gth 
month  of  tho  year  10  Akbal,  from  which  fact  it  is  evi- 
dent that  tho  T/ental  method  of  arranging  tho  days 
of  tho  month,  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  tho  Dresden 
C"od(>x,  was  followed  here. 

Th(^  bottom  symbol  of  the  second  column  is  S  Ahau, 
that  immediately  to  the  right — bottom  of  the  third 
column — is  the  day  o  Kan. 

This  will  serve  to  illustrate  tlie  advance,  though  but 
little,  made  toward  a  solution  of  this  itiscription  with 
tho  knowledge  so  far  obtained  of  the  symbols.  It  mav 
bo  added  that,  besides  tho  day  s^'mbols,  tiic  signitication 
of  several  other  characters  denoting  time  piM'iods  has 
been  determined,   quite   recently.     These  discoveries 


LMS 


Sfiii^-   <if  J^DiiJi  A  iixricdii  Archdiohtiiy. 


X  • 


Avill,  a  )!.  ;p  'lior  lias  ])r()vi'il,  sullic(>  to  cxpljiin  a 
consider. 1      'i.Mc.of  tluMnscrii»tioiis. 

It  is  ovideiit  tii.^  Iio  julvMiu'e  ^^\•,H\v.  hy  the  Mayas 
toward  true  alpIiabcMic  ■\vriliiig  Avas  Ix^yoiul  tliat  of 
iiuM'o  coiiv(Mitioiiali/('d  symbols,  though  they  had  not 
rcacluHl  the  al])hal)(Mic  stagiv  That  th(>y  had  reached 
that  stage  wh(M"(!  syinbols  -vvcrc  used  to  r(>prcsoiit,  to  a 
certain  dogccc,  syliubic  sounds,  apix'urs  to  bo  demon- 
strable. So  far  as  can  bo  judged  by  what  lias  been 
ascertained,  the  manuscripts  -which  have  been  pre- 
served, are,  to  ••  largo  ext(Mit,  religious  calendars  re- 
lating to  religious  ceremonies,  observances  in  domestic 
])ursuits,  etc. 

The  form  of  government  dillered  somewhat  in  the 
ditrerent  tribes.  The  most  advanced  typo  was  that  of 
the  Aztecs  and  T(^zcucans,  which  may,  perhaps,  with- 
out exaggeration,  be  ternKnl  a  well  regulated  mon- 
archy. Descent  was  in  the  nude  line,  tlu>  title  passing 
from  fatluM"  to  son,  but  not  without  certain  conditions 
and  limitations,  as  it  seems  that  certain  nobles  or 
men  of  authority  had  the  right  to  decide  which  of  two 
or  more  brothers  or  nephews,  where  there  was  no  son, 
should  succeed  to  the  sovereignty.  In  otlu>r  words, 
the  government  was  to  this  extent  an  elective  mon- 
archy. The  election,  however,  was  restricted  to  the 
family  of  the  deceased  monarch,  but  females  were 
excluded. 

In  Yucatan  the  ])eoi)le  were  sjjlit  into  a  number  of 
ind(>pendent  states  or  tribes,  (»ach  governed  by  its  own 
chieftain.  According  to  tradition,  and  it  seems  quite 
probable,  tlies(>  independent  bodies,  all  speaking  tlio 
same  language,  were  the  fragments  of  a  powerful 
confedera  'y  which  had  been  broken  up  through  dis- 


Mcrlcan  Siction — Civilizat'nnt . 


240 


5  quite 


sonsions,  about  a  century  bofoi'o  tlio  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards.  Tlio  chieftaincy  was  hereditary,  descent 
being  in  the  male  lino.  The  real  power,  liowevi-r,  Ix  "e, 
among  tlic  Mexicans,  tlie  Zapotecs,  and  appar^  .il; 
all  the  nations  of  the  section,  was  \n  the  priest 'ood 
though  nominally  in  the  hands  of  the  chief  or  'u  er- 
eign,  it  "was  mostly  exercised  in  accordance  a> in-  'he 
wishes  and  direction  of  the  ])riests. 

The  art,  however,  in  which  the  people  of  's  .sec- 
tion excelled  and  in  which  their  advance  in  the 
scale  of  civilization  is  most  apparent,  was  architect- 
ure. To-day,  the  chief  reminder  of  the  cultured 
past  of  the  people  of  this  region  is  found  in  the 
crumbling  remains  of  their  architecture,  the  ruins  of 
temples,  towcM's  and  other  stately  edifices. 

Although  we  shall  reserve  our  comments  to  be  added 
as  we  proceed  with  the  descriptions  of  some  of  the 
most  noted  examples  of  the  diH'ercnt  types  of  struct- 
ures, the  following  statement  in  regard  to  the  Mayan 
structures  of  Yucatan  may  be  of  advantage  to  the 
reader  in  drawing  his  own  conclusion  as  to  tlie  struct- 
ures mentioned. 

"Some  of  the  l)uildings  ai'o  composite  and  show 
successive  accretions  or  periods  of  growth,  and  this  is 
true  to  a  large  extent  of  the  greater  buildings  of  most 
nations,  but  there  are  others  that  stand  as  perfect 
luiits  of  design,  in  which  the  conception  must  have 
been  comiDloto  in  every  detail  when  the  construction 
b(>gan,  a  nuister  mind  controlling  the  cutting  and 
the  placing  of  every  stone.  There  may  have  be(Mi 
Avorking  drawings — and  the  people  were  certainly 
equal  to  the  task  of  making  them — but  if  there  were 
none,  the  carrying  out  of  the  Avork  without  them  must 


250 


Stiidi/  of  North  American  ArcUaeolo;)!/. 


> 

i ! 

X. 

I- 
i 


he  fi'garclcd  as  ovon  more  reinai'kiil)le.  The  construc- 
tion (»f  such  huiklings  as  tlic  palace  at  Uxinal  and 
the  CastiUo  at  C'hichcn,  indicates  a  mastery  in  arclii- 
tectural  design  well  calculated  to  astonish  tlie  student 
of  the  half-crvstallized  cidturo  of  the  American 
races  in  gen(>ral.  Tliei-o  can  be  but  little  doubt  that 
when  the  work  of  building  began  in  such  cases,  the 
ground-plan,  elevation  and  constructive  design  were 
fully  worked  out,  and  the  spacings  and  doorway's, 
moldings  and  j^anels  and  all  details  of  scidptured  deco- 
ration were  fully  decided  upon ;  and  I  should  say 
that  ev(Mi  details  of  the  stone  cutting,  the  number, 
widtli  and  angle  of  courses  of  masonry,  were  predeter- 
mined, as  otherwise,  with  the  complexity  of  form  and 
the  infinity  of  geometric  detail  characterizing  the  fa- 
pades,  utter  confusion  must  have  resulted."  (Holmes.) 
We  also  ask  the  reader  to  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
the  builders  were  without  beasts  of  burden,  wheeled 
vehicles,  or  metal  tools — with  the  exception  possibly 
of  a  few  bronze  implements  among  some  of  the 
Nahuatl  tribes — whicli  coidd  have  been  used  in  their 
work. 


\' 


Mexican  ISedion — Civilization . 


'i.-)  I 


CHAPTER   XVII, 


MONl'MKNTS    Ol'    SOITHKR.V    MKXICO. 


Following  tlio  plan  which  lui,-,  heoii  adoptod  in  the 
preceding  chapters  relating  to  the  PueiHc  division,  the 
order  geographically  in  which  the  ruins  will  bo  men- 
tioned will  be  from  the  north  toward  the  south,  the 
probable  direction,  as  will  hereafter  be  shown,  of  the 
chief  movements  of  population  in  prehistoric  times. 

It  is  probable,  notwithstanding  Bancroft's  state- 
ments in  regard  to  the  types  of  ruins  known  as  "Los 
Edificios,"  at  Quer.iada  in  the  state  of  Zacatecas,  that 
these,  and  possibly  others  north  of  his  limiting  line 
mentioned  above,  should  bo  classed  with  those  in  the 
southern  section  or  area  of  civilization. 

These  ruins,  which  are  the  most  noted  of  the  north- 
ern area,  are  located  about  thirty  miles  south  of  the 
capital  of  Zacatecas,  and  six  miles  north  of  Villa- 
nueva.  The  name  Quenuula  ("burnt")  is  that  of  a 
hacienda  about  a  league  to  the  south-west  of  the  ruins. 
The  latter  are  known  locally  as  Los  Edificios.  The 
first  notice  of  the  place  is  found  in  a  history  of  Nueva 
Galicia  written  by  Fr.  Tello  about  1650,  He  states 
that  the  Spaniai'ds  under  Captain  Chirinos,  "found  a 
great  city  in  ruins  and  abandoned  ;  but  it  was  known 
to  liave  had  most  suiiiptuous  edifices,  with  grand 
streets  and  plazas  well  arranged,  and  within  a  quarter 
of    a   league    four   towers   with    causeways    of   stone 


'I'i'f  Stiidi/  of  Mortli  Aiaerican  Arehaeolugi/. 


). 

i: 

Si' 

IS' 


a 


loading  from  one  to  nnothor."  As  the  riiinrd  city  lic^ 
retVrs  to  was  in  the  ■»'tj;ion  of  the  modern  town,  Jerez, 
it  may  witli  little  doul)t  he  ideiililied  with  (iiiemada. 

The  ruins  are  situated  on  a  narrow,  isolated  liill, 
the  summit  of  which  forms  an  ii-retjidar  plateau  over 
half  a  milt^  in  length  and  from  two  to  five  hundred 
yards  in  width.  All  the  jiccessible  ))oints  of  the  brow 
of  the  hill  are  guarded  by  stone  walls.  Tlio  interior 
surface,  where  uneven,  is  formetl  into  terraces  sup- 
ported by  walls  of  solid  masonry.  These  terraces  t)r 
platforms  supported  numerous  editices.  On  the  lower 
part  of  the  mesa  is  a  (luadrangular  sj)ace,  200  by  '2-10 
feet,  depressed  about  four  or  five  feet  below  the  sur- 
rounding surface  and  bounded  by  a  stone  terrace  or 
embankment.  At  one  point  on  the  eastern  terrace 
stands  a  round  i)illar  six  feet  in  diameter  and  eighteen 
feet  high,  and  there  are  traces  here  of  nine  others. 

Adjoining  this  inclosure  is  another  (quadrangular 
sj)ace  similar  in  character,  100  by  140  feet,  in  which 
there  are  eleven  pillars,  a  little  less  in  diameter  but  of 
the  same  height  as  those  above  mentioned,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  sustained  -i  roof  over  the  area. 
It  is  stated  that  Nebel  found  in  the  ruins  a  roof  thus 
supported,  made  of  large  flat  stones  covered  with 
mortar  and  sustained  by  beams. 

Of  the  extensive  group  on  the  j^latform  of  the 
south-western  base  of  the  central  height,  only  a  por- 
tion has  been  definitely  described.  Here  is  a  de- 
pressed inclosure  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  square, 
bounded  by  a  terrace  wall  three  feet  high  and  twelve 
feet  wide,  with  steps  up  the  middle  of  each  side. 
Back  of  the  terrace,  on  three  sides,  are  walls  eight  or 


Miinii iiiniln  III'  Soutlu'i'ii  Mifivo. 


'Jali 


nine  iovt  thick  and  twenty  feet  lii^li.  tlu>  north  side 
l)('in^  j^uunh'd  by  the  steep  side  of  the  <'liH'.  In  the 
interior,  near  the  north  side,  is  a  pyramid  about 
thirty-six  feet  square  and  nineteen  feet  hi<^h,  i)uilt  in 
live  or  six   successive  stages  or  steps  (Fijj;.  83).     In 


Fig.  83.    Pyrainul  at  Los  Kdificos,  Mexico. 

the  center  of  the  inclosure  is  a  kind  of  altar  or  pyra- 
mid seven  feet  square  and  five  feet  liigh.  The  nia- 
t(M-ial  of  the  works  is  cliiefly  gray  porpliyry.  Tlie 
intones,  -vvhicli  are  thin  slabs  not  more  tlian  three  or 
four  inches  thick,  and  not  dressed,  are  laid  in  a  mor- 
tar of  reddish  clay  mixed  with  straw  or  grass. 

As  yet,  no  sculptures,  hieroglj'phics,  pictographs, 
or  architectural  decorations  have  been  found  in  these 
ruins,  and,  contrary  to  what  would  be  expected,  pot- 
tery, ^\  olo  and  in  fragments,  stone  implements  and 
burial  deposits  arc  entirely  wanting. 

Notwith 'Standing  Bancroft's  statement  that  the  ruins 
of  Quemada  "show  but  few  analogies  to  any  of  the 
southern  remains,"  the  reverse  appears  to  be  true, 
and  we  may  add  here  that  the  importance  of  tlieso 
niins  in  the  study  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  native 
Mexican  and  Central  American  civilization  does  not 
appear  to  luivo  been  fully  appreciated  by  autliurs 
touching  upon  the  subject.     Unfortunately,  accurate 


254 


Sfiuhj  of  North  American  Archacohffy. 


z 


ground  plans  of  tlie  individual  structures  are  want- 
ing, but  Ave  see  here  the  depressed  quadrangular 
courts  as  at  Palenque,  Copan  and  elsewhere  in  the 
south  ;  and  the  interior  supporting  columns  as  at 
Mitla  and  Teotihuacan.  We  also  see  here  the  inter- 
mediate terraced  w^alls,  as  found  in  the  south  ;  and 
here,  also,  the  pyramid  assumes,  though  in  embryo, 
the  form  common  in  southern  Mexico  and  Central 
America.  It  is  true  tliat  stone  replaces  to  a  large  ex- 
tent the  adobe  of  the  more  northern  structures,  as  at 
Casas  Grandes  and  Casa  Grande,  but  the  thin,  un- 
dressed slabs  laid  in  mortar  of  clay  and  straw  do  not 
show  a  very  great  advance  in  masoniy  on  that  of  the 
cliff -dwellings  and  pueblos.  Nevertheless,  the  plan, 
extent  and  massive  features  of  the  ruins  indicate  an 
advance  in  culture.  Notwithstanding  his  soiiiewhat 
unfavorable  comment,  Bancroft  makes  the  following 
admission  : 

"As  a  strongly  fortified  hill,  bearing  also  temples, 
Quemada  bears  considerable  resemblance  .o  Quiotepec 
in  Oajaca  ;  and  possibly  the  likeness  would  be  still 
stronger  if  a  plan  of  the  Quiotepec  fortifications  were 
extant.  The  massive  character,  number  and  extent 
of  the  monuments  show  the  builders  to  have  been  a 
powerful,  and,  in  some  respects,  an  advanced  people, 
hardly  less  so,  it  would  seem  at  first  thought,  than 
the  peoi^les  of  Central  America ;  but  the  absence  of 
narrow  buildings  covered  by  arclies  of  overlapping 
stones,  and  of  all  decorative  sculpture  and  painting, 
make  the  contrast  very  striking.  The  pyramids,  so 
far  as  they  are  described,  do  not  dilfer  very  materially 
from  some  in  other  parts  of  the  coimtry,  but  the  loca- 


Monuments  of  Southern  Mexico. 


255 


tion  of  the  pyramids  shown  in  the  drawing  and  plan 
within  the  inclosed  and  terraced  squares,  seems 
unique.  The  pillars  recall  the  roof  structures  of 
Mitla,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  pillars  at 
Quemada  supported  balconies  instead  of  roofs  ;  indeed, 
it  seems  improbable  that  these  large  squares  were 
ever  entirely  covered." 

It  is  true,  as  indicated  in  this  extract,  that  the  tri- 
angular arch,  so  common  in  the  ruins  at  Palcnque 
and  elsewhere  in  Mayan  territory,  had  not,  as  yet, 
come  into  use,  or  w\as  unknown  to  the  builders  of 
"Los  Edificios."  But  these  structures  are  not  unique 
in  this  respect,  as  will  appear  further  on. 

Interesting  antiquities,  some  of  them  rivaling  those 
at  Quemada,  have  been  discovered  in  Michoacan, 
C'oliraa  and  elsewhere  in  central  Mexico  ;  cave-dwell- 
ings, pyramids  of  stone  laid  in  clay  mortar,  temples 
and  idols  are  reported  ;  but  the  accounts  are  eitlier 
insufficient  to  convey  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  ruins 
or  unreliable.     ' 

Approaching  the  valley  of  Aiuihuac  from  the  north, 
at  the  distance  of  some  fifty  or  sixty  miles  from  tlie 
City  of  Mexico,  we  come  upon  the  small  and  unim- 
portant town  of  Tula.  Tula,  TuUa,  Tulan,  Tolan  or 
Tollan,  as  it  is  variously  written,  is,  however,  a  name 
that  is  often  repeated  in  the  traditions  and  history  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  was  here,  according 
to  tlie  long-current  opinioi;,  that  the  Toltecs,  coming 
from  the  north,  fixed  thoir  capital,  in  the  sixth  cen- 
turv,  A.  D. 

The  ancient  city  appears  to  have  extended  over  a 
plain   intersected    by    a    nuiddy   river   which    winds 


•1  : 


2r)G 


Sfmhj  of  NoriJi  Atncricaa  Arvlnuolixjij. 


J?: 

i 


around  the  baso  of  Mount  Coatopotl,  but  a  sin;;]l  por- 
tion of  wliich  is  occupied  by  the  modern  town.  The 
comparatively  few  antiquities  wliich  liavo  be(Mi  ob- 
tained from  tlie  inun(>diate  site  liavo  bc^en  found  in 
clearing  the  river  of  some  of  its  mud,  or  whilst  plow- 
ing the  adjacent  lields.  Among  tliese  are  the  frag- 
ments of  three  caryatides  or  sculptured  columns,  one 
of  wliich  is  of  black  basalt 
and  of  giant  proportions. 
This,  which  is  seven  ivvi 
high,  represcMits  only  the 
legs  ;  the  body  and  upper  por- 
tions are  wanting,  possibly 
wore  never  present.  This 
may  have  been  a  doul)lo 
column  with  an  e.\pansit)n  at 
the  base  in  the  form  of  feet. 
The  legs  (or  columns)  are 
each,  one  foot  and  three  inches 
in  diameter,  and  the  feet  four 
feet  long. 

Parts  of  another  column 
have  been  discovered  hero 
which  present  the  unusual 
feature  of  having  IIk^  pieces 
connected  by  joint  and  tenon. 
The  sculpt ur  ng  is  clearly  in- 


tended to  give  the  coliunn  the 


Yv'.  84. 


appearance  of  the  serpent's 
body.  (Fig.  84,  wliich  shows 
the  parts  united  and  the  whole 
til'  oretically  in  position.)   Accorilingto  Sahagun,  tliero 


Sculpttin-d  ('(iliimii, 
Tula. 


Ari»i)im('iitf<  of  Southern  Mexico. 


257 


\ 


>liiiini, 


tliere 


were,  at  liis  early  clay,  among  the  ruinp  of  Tula, 
those  of  an  unfinished  temnle  called  QuetzaH,  con- 
sisting of  pillars  in  the  shape  of  serpents,  the  heads 
forming  the  base.  The  latter  feature,  as  will  be  here- 
after seen,  appears  again  in  the  ruins  of  Chichen- 
Itza,  and  is  supposeu  lO  be  indicative  of  the  worship 
of  Quetzalcoatl  or  his  Mayan  equivalent,  Cukulcan. 
Desire  Charney,  during  his  explorations  of  some 
tumuli  on  a  neighboring  hill,  laid  1  vre  the  founda- 
tions of  two  ancient  dwellings.  One  of  these  con- 
sisted of  twenty-four  rooms,  two  cisterns,  twelve  cor- 
ridors and  fifteen  little  stairways.  It  seems  tliat  the 
floors  of  the  rooms  were  mostly  on  different  levels. 
The  entire  platr^au  of  this  hill,  which  is  of  consid- 
erable extent,  was  found  to  be  covered  with  ruins 
of  buildings,  pyramids  and  other  structures. 

According  to  the  author  last  quoted,  the  inner  walls 
were  coated  with  mud  and  mortar  and  in  some  cases 
stucco,  while  the  outer  walls  were  faced  with  large 
baked  bricks  and  cut  stone  ;  the  stairways  were  of 
brick  and  stone.  It  is  supposed  from  the  indications 
tliat  the  roofs  were  of  wood  and  flat.  Here  and  there 
closed  up  i:)assages,  walls  rebuilt  with  materials  other 
than  those  emj)loyed  in  tlie  other  construction,  are 
taken  as  evidence  that  the  place  was  occupied  at  two 
different  periods,  and  possibly  by  two  different  peoples 
or  tribes.  According  to  V(>vtia,  "On  the  ChichinK^cs 
invading  the  country  under  the  command  of  Xolotl, 
they  found  Tula  deserted,  and  grass  growing  in  the 
streets,  but  the  king  was  so  pleased  with  the  site  tliat 
he  ordered  the  monuments  to  be  repaired  and  the 
town  inhabited.  lie  followed  the  same  policv  at 
17 


258  Study  of  Xorih  American  Archavohfiy. 


^1 


n 


L^ii 


o 

o 


C 
OS 
o 
es 

:S 
o 


si 

1^ 


I  I 


Mexican  Section — Civilization . 


259 


^SHp 


^;i 


,¥ 


o 


o 


s 


cc 


Teotihuacan  and  other  places,  ordering  liia  people  to 
preserve  old  names,  and  only  authorizing  flifm  to 
give  new  appellations  to  those  they  should  build  them- 
selves." 

Continuing  our  course  soutlnvanl  wf  naeli  *h«^  city 
of  Teotihuacan  [ '  'City  of  th<» Gods" "  i ,  aboun  t werav-tfv* 
miles  north-east  of  Mexico.  The  ruui!*  hcn\  on  iwvijmas 
of  their  proximity  to  ^hc  capital,  hive  been  <«ifttn 
visited  by  antiquaries  and  tfil\('h'r~  aiul  haf*  Itttett 
repeatedly  and  somewhit  th»r«iii'<-fi';'  ■;»-scril>fd.  A*v 
cording  to  the  most  receat  dcx-rii  .■•h.  in  the  niasni- 
tude  of  its  remains  and  the  evitl«>nce  the  site  fllrni^!lel* 
of  population  and  antiquity,  Teotihuacan  stands  eanly 
at  the  liead  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Mexico.  It  lavk;- 
the  well-preserved  sculpture-decorated  buildings  found 
elsewhere  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but  tliis  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  rarity  of  suitable  buikling  stone 
in  this  ])art  of  the  valley.  Cholula  has  a  greater 
P3'ramid  but  lacks  the  multiplicity  of  attendant  litru  t- 
ures  which  here  cover  sijuare  miles  of  grouii^i.  ne 
prominent  features  are  the  two  great  pyraniKJ-  .wit 
of  the  Sun,  that  of  the  Moon,  and  the  Camiiio  •■•  ]<»s 
MucM'tos  ("Pathway  of  the  Dead'"). 

xV  view  of  the  i)rincipal  ruins,  from  the  Pyr  nii«l  of 
the  Moon,  is  sliown  in  Fig.  (So.  Tlu;  Pyramid  of  '**•  Hiiii 
and  the  Citadel  are  seen  in  the  background,  aii<l  tlie 
Pathway  of  the  Dead  at  the  right.  The  I'vramid  o'  the 
Sun  is  one  of  the  most  massive  remains  on  the  conti- 
nent. With  a  square  bas(>,  measuring  between  fiSO 
and  700  feet  on  a  side,  it  towers  upward  to  th(>  heigl\t 
of   ISO  feet,  with   a  lev(*l   summit  of  al)out    -Oc  feet 


square. 


There    were    thi'ee     terraces,    each    Ixtween 


2()(' 


Shidij  iif  Xortli  Aiihriraii  Archacohtin/. 


r  • 

^  i 


twenty  ;ui(l  thirty  feet  wide,  tlius  (lividiiig  it  into  four 
stoi".<'s.  Althoiigli  remains  ot'  a  zigzag  stairway  are 
said  to  luivo  bc(>n  oi)S('rv(Hi  on  the  oast  faco,  it  is  prol)- 
al)lo  the  real  stairway  was  on  tlie  west  side,  tluis  giv- 
ing a  more  direct  ascent  to  the  teniple  wliicli  tradition 
atHrnis  crowned  the  summit,  inclosing  a  colossal  statite 
of  the  sun  made  of  a  single  hlock  of  stone  of  which, 
however,  no  remains  are  at  present  to  be  seen. 

The  Pyramid  of  the  Moon,  thotigh  of  less  gigantic 
proportions  than  that  of  the  Sun,  measures  betAveen 
4.)()  and  nOO  feet  at  the  base  and  is  of  proportional 
height.  Ail  important  feature  of  the  ancient  city  was 
the  great  court,  some  GOO  or  7(iO  feet  scpiare,  lying  at 
the  south  base  of  the  Pyramid  of  the  Moon  atid  open- 
ing into  the  "Pathway  of  the  Dead."  Th(>  latter,  a 
depressed  way  varying  from  200  to  300  feet  in  width, 
extends  southward  a  distance  of  over  two  miles,  and 
is  flanked  on  either  side  by  an  almost  unbrok(>n  series 
of  mounds  and  terrac(\s  ranging  in  height  from  ten  to 
thirty  feet.  As  it  crosses  the  Arroyo  of  the  San  Juan, 
this  must  have  been  spanned  in  the  time  of  occupancy 
by  a  b"Jdgo.  The  Citadel  is  a  quadrangular  inclosure 
J:^'>0  hy  1400  feet,  the  siuM'ounding  embankment 
Viirying  in  .vidth  from  100  to  ISO  feet  and  in  height 
from  ^en  lo  twenty  feet.  Each  of  the  four  lines  of 
this  emb;iiikmeni.  is  surmounted  by  a  series  of  four 
sjUciH  mounds. 

Al!  classes  of  structure  were  !  .lilt  of  irregular 
masse,-)  and  fragmiMits  of  lava  and  of  adobe,  the  earth 
(»f  the  plniiis  more  or  less  intermingled  with  com- 
minuted volcanic  materials.  Facings  of  ini|)ortant 
surfaces  were  sometimes  of  selected  stone.     "Hewn 


Mcx'ica a  Section — Civllizatitm. 


2()1 


giv- 


'gular 
earth 

COlll- 

orlant 
T  lew  11 


stone,"  says  Mr.   Holmes,  "was  little   used,   and  tlie 

laying  of  n^gular  courses  in  mortar  was  not  common.'' 

It   is  supposed    that   the 

roofs    were     flat    and 

formed  «)f  wooden  beams. 

Wliere  the  chambers  were 

hirgc,      masonry     pillars 

were  built  tip  to   support    ' 
,      ,  .„,  ...  Fig.  8().    (Iroiiiul  plan  of  Teotilma- 

thel)eams.     These  pillars,  can  i,uiidiii^r. 

as  exposed  by  Cliarney's 

exploration,  were  mostly  square.  The  grotmd  plan 
t)f  the  edifice  unearthed  ])y  Charney,  according  to  Mr. 
Holmes,  is  shown  m  Fig.  80. 

The  types  and  character  of  these  ruins  appear  to 
indicate  that  they  are  to  l)o  considered  })re-Azt(>can — 
the  work  of  a  difhM'cMit  and  earlier  peo})lo  than  th<^ 
Aztecs.  Mr.  Hand(>lier  says  :  "That  the  pyramids  of 
Teotihuacan  date  from  a  ])eriod  anterior  to  that  of  the 
Mexicans,  or  Nahtiatl  in  general,  restilts  from  the  fact 
that  no  striking  im>ution  is  made  of  them  in  connection 
witli  th(>  specifically  Mexican  traditions.  The  place 
in  the  two  centtiries  which  ])recedt>d  the  conquest  does 
not  play  a  ])art  corresponding  to  the  magnitude  of  its 
ruins.  This  shows  that  the  edifices  were  already 
abandoned  at  th(>  time  of  the  conquest."  They  are 
usually  attril)uted  by  i-arly  authorities  to  the  so-called 
Toltecs.  Mr.  Holmes  says:  "It  is  clear  that  the 
people,  whatsoever  their  ])eriod  or  affinities,  were  in- 
telligent, enterprising  and  powerful,  and  that  their 
sway  extended  over  a  long  period  of  years.  The  art 
rcMuains  indicate  a  culttire  differing  decidedly  from 
that  of  Tenochtitlan — the  Aztec  ca])ital,  now  the  City 


262 


St  Kill/  of  Norch  American  Archaeology. 


h 


a; 


of  Mexico — (lifferinjT  in  so  many  ways  as  to  warrant 
the  inference  of  a  distinct  nation ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  tht  analogies  are  so  close  and  numerous  that 
tlie  two  peoples,  if  nv)t  of  tlie  same  stock,  must  have 
been  closely  associated  for  a  great  number  of  years." 

An  enthusiastic  writer,  speaking  of  these  ruins, 
says  : 

"  If  by  an  effort  of  the  imagination  wo  were  to  try 
and  reconstruct  this  dead  city,  restore  lier  dwellings, 
her  temple,,  and  pyramids,  coated  with  pink  and 
white  outer  coatings,  surroimded  by  verdant  gardens, 
intersected  by  beautiftil  roads  paved  with  red  cement, 
the  whole  i)athed  in  a  flood  of  sunshine,  we  should 
realize  the  vivid  description  given  by  Torcpiemada  : 
'All  the  temples  and  palaces  were  perfectly  built, 
whitewashed  and  polislied  outside,  so  that  it  gave  one 
a  real  pleasure  to  view  them  from  a  little  distance. 
All  the  streets  and  squares  were  beautifully  paved, 
and  th(>y  looked  so  daintily  clean  as  to  make  you  al- 
most doubt  their  being  the  work  of  human  hands, 
destined  for  human  feet ;  nor  am  I  dra-\\  ing  an  imag- 
inary picture,  for  besides  what  I  have  been  told,  I 
myself  have  seen  ruins  of  temples,  with  noble  trees 
and  l)eautiful  gardens  full  of  fragrant  flowers,  which 
were  grown  for  the  service  of  the  temples.'  " 

This,  says  Charney,  from  whom  we  quote,  goes  fat 
to  prove  that  the  ruins  are  not  so  ancient  as  some 
writers  maintain.  Nevertheless,  that  the  original 
plan  and  structu.'cs  are  to  bo  attributed  to  other  people 
than  the  Aztecs,  is  generally  conceded ;  and  that  the 
place  was  in  ruins  when  Torquemada  visited  ifc,  U 
clear  from  his  statement. 


Mexican  Section—CiviUzatlon . 


263 


Fragments  of  pottery  in  great  abundance,  obsidian 
flakes,  stone  axes,  etc.,  are  scattered  about  the  ruins  ; 
sculptured  ornamentation  is  somewhat  rare,  but  a 
massive  stone  idol  complete  and  fragments  of  one  or 
two  more,  also  some  other  sculptured  monoliths  have 
been  found. 


i-i 


204 


St  11(1 1/  (if  Xiirth  American  ArcJiarology. 


CHAPTER  XVIir. 


V 

!  r 


MONUMENTS    OK    SorXIIKRN    MKXICO ('ONTINIKD. 

Having  now  entered  the  civilized  region,  where 
ruins  are  scattered  liere  and  there  over  the  country, 
we  can  only  notice  a  few  of  tlio  more  important,  and 
refer  tlie  reader  who  wishes  to  learn  more  of  the  de- 
tails to  the  various  works  in  which  these  are  recorded. 
As  the  temples  and  palaces  of  Tenochtitlan,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Aztecs  and  the  site  of  the  present  C'ity  of 
Mexico,  remain  only  in  the  descriptions  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors,  and  as  the  two  or  three  horrid  images 
and  the  supposed  calendar  and  sacrificial  stones 
which  have  been  found  have  been  often  figured  in 
published  works  and  are  probably  familiar  to  most 
readers,  we  pass  on  to  other  points. 

The  ruins  at  Xochicalco  ("Hill  of  Flowers"),  about 
seventy-five  miles  south-west  of  Mexico,  and  fifteen 
miles  south-west  of  Cuernavaca,  are  in  some  respects 
the  most  singular  and  incUule  perhaps  the  finest 
monuments  of  the  state.  In  the  center  of  the  plain 
rises  an  oval  hill,  about  two  miles  in  circumference 
and  from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet  higli. 
Two  tunnels  (or  galleries)  enter  the  side  of  the  hill 
on  the  north,  one  of  which  has  been  traced  to  a  depth 
of  a  little  over  eighty  feet.  Tlie  second,  between 
nine  and  ten  feet  high,  pierces  the  solid  limestone  of 
the  hill,  and  has  several  branches  running  in  diff'erent 
directions,  some  of  them  terminating  in  fallen  debris, 
others  apparently  walled  up  intentionally.     The  floors 


Monuments  of  Sontlicrn  Mcn'cu. 


•J(55 


about 
if  teen 
ipec'ts 
finest 
plain 
>renco 


are  paved  to  a  thickness  of  eighteen  inches  witli  brick- 
shaped  blocks  of  stone,  and  the  sides  are  strengthened 
with  walls  of  masonry  -wherever  necessary.  Both 
pavement  and  walls,  as  well  as  the  ceiling,  are  cov- 
ered with  lim(!  cement,  which  still  retains  evidence  of 
liaving  been  painted  with  red  ochre.  The  principal 
gallery,  after  turning  once  at  right  angles,  terminates 
at  a  distance  of  several  hundred  feet  in  a  large  apart- 
ment about  eighty  feet  long,  in  which  two  circular 
pillars  are  left  of  the  original  rock  to  serve  as  sup- 
ports for  the  roof. 

From  one  corner  of  the  room  opens  a  little  rotunda, 
six  feet  in  diameter,  excavated,  as  the  room  itself,  in 
the  rock,  the  dome  of  which  is  in  the  form  of  a 
jDointed  arch.  The  outside  of  the  hill  is  formed  into 
five  successive  terraces,  supported  by  walls  crowned 
with  parapets.  The  top  or  upper  level,  about  220  by 
2S0  feet,  supported  a  temple,  or,  more  correctly,  pyra- 
mid and  temple  (Fig.  87),  measuring  sixty-five   feet 


Fig.  87.    Ruins  of  the  temple  of  Xochicalco. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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4. 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


266 


Study  of  North  Amsrican  Archaeology. 


I 

1  ! 


LJi 


from  east  to  west  and  forty-eight  from  north  to  south, 
constructed  of  porphyritic  granite,  dressed  and  laid 
without  mortar.  The  part  shown  in  the  figure  is 
probably  only  the  basement.  There  were  originally 
five  stories  to  the  temple,  rising  step  by  step  one  be- 
hind another,  which  were  to  be  seen  as  late  a^  1755. 
The  numerous  figures  on  that  part  of  the  face  shown 
in  the  cut  indicate  Mexican  (Nahuatl)  origin,  and 
would  seem  to  denote  a  different  tribe  or  people  from 
the  builders  of  Tula  or  Teotihuacan. 

The  artificial  caverns  found  here  were,  beyond  any 
reasonable  doubt,  connected  with  religious  ceremonies 
or  superstitious  rites,  and  would  seem  to  be  a  survival 
of  the  similar  custom  already  referred  to  as  found 
further  north.  It  may  also  be  added  that  worship  in 
caverns  was  practiced  to  some  extent  throughout  Cen- 
tral America. 

Before  proceeding  with  our  description  of  ruins,  we 
quote  the  following  from  Motolinia,  an  early  8panisli 
writer,  in  reference  to  the  mode  of  constructing  the 
Mexican  mounds  of  worship  : 

"In  the  most  prominent  part  of  tliis  court  there 
stood  a  great  rectangular  base,  one  of  which  I  meas- 
ured at  Tenanyocan  in  order  to  write  this,  and  found 
it  to  bo  forty  fathoms  from  corner  to  corner.  This 
they  filled  up  solid,  stuffing  it  within  with  stone,  clay, 
adobe,  or  well-poundcd  earth,  and  faced  it  with  a  wall 
of  stone  ;  and  as  it  rose  they  made  it  incline  inward, 
and  at  every  fathom  and  a  half  or  two  fathoms  of 
height  they  made  a  stage.  Thus  there  was  a  broad 
foundation,  and  on  it  walls  narrowing  to  the  top,  both 
by  reason  of  tlio  stages  as  well  as  by  the  slope,  until 
at  a  height  of  thirty-four  to  thirty-five  fathoms  the 


Monuments  of  Southern  Mexico. 


267 


south, 
id  laid 
^ure  is 
gill  ally 
)ne  be- 
5  1755. 
shown 
n,  and 
le  from 

nd  any 
•monies 
lurvival 
3  found 
rship  in 
lut  Gen- 
ius, we 
panisli 
ing  the 

t  there 
meas- 
found 
This 
,  clay, 
a  wall 

nward, 

Loms  of 
broad 

p,  both 
,  until 

ms  the 


teocalli  was  seven  or  eight  fathoms  smaller  on  each 
side  than  below.  On  the  west  side  were  the  steps  by 
which  to  ascend,  and  on  the  summit  were  erected  two 
altars  close  by  the  eastern  edge,  not  leaving  more 
space  behind  them  than  sufficient  for  a  walk.  One  of 
these  altars  was  on  the  right,  the  other  on  the  left, 
and  each  one  bad  its  walls  and  roof  like  a  chapel. 
The  large  teocallis  had  two  altars,  the  others  one,  and 
each  had  its  covered  house.  The  great  ones  were  of 
three  stories  over  the  altars,  with  their  ceilings  fairly 
high.  The  base  also  was  as  high  as  a  great  tower,  so 
that  it  could  be  seen  from  afar.  Each  chapel  stood 
by  itself,  and  one  might  walk  around  it,  and  in  front 
of  the  altars  there  was  a  great  open  space  where  they 
sacrificed." 

About  ten  miles  west  of  the  Pueblo  do  los  Angelos 
is  the  great  pyramid  of  Cholula,  so  often  mentioned 
by  writers,  the  giant  of  its  class.  Although  still 
standing,  on  account  of  the  wear  of  centuries  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  exact  measurements  or  to  determine 
with  certainty  its  precise  form.  The  sides  of  the  base, 
which  was  square,  are  variously  estimated  from  1440 
to  nearly  2000  feet  each.  Bandolier  gives  the  peri- 
meter at  7740,  and  estimates  the  height  at  165,  others 
at  175  to  200  feet.  It  consisted  of  four  terraces  or 
stages,  probably  of  unequal  width,  and,  if  Mr.  Ban- 
dolier be  correct,  with  apron-like  extensions  or  plat- 
forms on  the  sides  of  the  base.  Here  the  material 
employed  was  chiefly  adobe,  with  broken  limestone, 
little  pebbles,  and  occasional  particles  of  lava.  Lime- 
stone broken  into  slabs  was  used  for  stops  and  stair- 
ways, and  "pulverized  carbonate  of  lime,  mixed  with 
pebbles  and  lava  fragments,  for  the  intervening  ledges 


268 


Siudy  of  North  Atncrican  Archaeology. 


i 


! 

X 

3 


and  the  coating  of  tho  stairways."  Tlie  indications 
are  that  the  structure  was  not  erected  at  one  time,  but 
is  rather  an  accumuhition  of  successive  periods. 

Although  it  is  known  that  it  was  surmounted  by  a 
temple,  possibly  of  small  size,  and  was  a  place  of 
worship,  yet  Mr,  Bandelier,  who  devoted  considerable 
time  to  tlie  study  of  the  locality  and  its  history,  is  of 
the  opinion  that  it  was,  at  least  in  part,  a  defensive 
work.  He  declares  also  that  "one  thing  seems  cer- 
tain, namely,  that  the  Nahuatl  did  not  construct  it." 

Continuing  southward,  we  enter  Oaxaca,  the  region 
of  the  Zapotecs  and  Mixtecs,  a  stock  distinct,  lin- 
guistically, from  the  Nahuatl  or  Maya,  and  embracing 
besides  tliese  two  tribes  some  other  small  tribes  of  the 
same  locality.  Though  distinct  from  the  Mexicans, 
the  two  peoples  had  many  customs  in  common.  The 
former  were  quite  as  highly  civilized  as  the  latter ; 
they  offered  human  sacrifices,  and  their  mode  of  wor- 
sliip  and  rites  appear  also  to  have  been  in  general 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Mexicans,  as  were  their 
dress,  ornaments  and  weapons,  and  their  warlike  or- 
ganization. Tlieii"  calendar,  the  outlines  of  which 
have  been  preserved,  was  based  upon  the  same  theory 
as  that  of  the  Mexicans  and  Mayas,  as  was  also  their 
system  of  enumeration. 

The  ruins  of  this  region,  which  are  numerous  and 
somewhat  extensive  and  important,  although  resem- 
bling to  some  extent  those  of  southern  Mexico  whicli 
have  been  noticed,  and  indicating  a  similarity  of  cul- 
ture, constitute  a  distinct  type.  Space,  however,  will 
permit  us  to  notice  but  the  single  group  at  Mitla,  al- 
tliougli  the  groups  at  Monte  Alban  show  great  quad- 
rangles   surrounded     by    walls    inclosing    series    of 


(lications 
time,  but 
ds. 

ted  by  a 
place  of 
siderable 
•ry,  is  of 
lefensive 
eras  cer- 
met it." 
le  region 
net,  lin- 
abracing 
es  of  the 
exicans, 
•n.  The 
i  latter ; 
1  of  wor- 
general 
re  their 
rlike  or- 
'  whicli 
e  theory 
iso  their 

ous  and 
L  resem- 
o  ■\vhicli 
r  of  cul- 
7er,  will 
[itla,  al- 
it  quad- 
iries    of 


Mdriuments  of  Southern  Mexico.  269 

mounds,  plazas  and  depressed  courts,  and  outer  series 
of  terraces— reminding  us,  in  some  respects,  of  the 
ruins  of  Copan,  and  evidently  marking  the  site  of  a 
large  ancient  city. 

The  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Mirla  is  now  occupied 
by  the  modern  village  of  the  same  name.  The  ancient 
structures  are  better  preserved  than  those  of  other 
groups  of  Mexico  which  we  have  described  ;  but  the 
ruins  are  not  so  extensive  as  those  of  Teotihuacan  or 
as  those  of  Monte  Alban.  But  they  are  exceedin<.]v 
interesting,  and  serve  to  illustrate  the  great  pro^rross 
made  by  the  prehistoric  people  of  ^ 

this  region  in  architecture,  espe- 
cially in  the  temple  building  art. 
The  group  consists  of  five  great 
clusters  of  buildings,  more  or  less 
perfectly  preserved.  Two  of  these 
are  shown  in  Fig.  88.  Mr.  Holmes 
remarks  as  follows  in  regard  to  the 
general  character  of  the  works  : 

'  'The  art  of  Mitla,  as  represented 
by  the  architectural  remains,  was 
highly  individualized,   and  hence 
presents   many  novel   features— a 
result  due  in  large  part,  no  doubt, 
to  the  isolation  of  the  people  and 
the  peculiarities   of  tlie  environ- 
ment.   Many  features  of  plan,  pro- 
file,   construction   and    finish   are 
new  to  tlie  student  who  has  paid  at- 
tention chiefly  to  Nahua  and  Maya 
building,  and  the  system  of  em-  ^'*'''  ^^'  ^"'"^ "'  ^^'^''^' 
bellishment  seems  to  stand  alone,  even  in  tho  province 


270  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


to  which  it  belongs.  The  mural  decorations  are  purely 
geometric,  and  in  appearance  are  in  striking  contrast 
with  the  mythological,  life-form  designs  so  prevalent 
throughout  other  sections  of  Mexico.  Much  has  been 
said  by  various  authors  regarding  the  significance  of 
these  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  architecture,  and 
some  have  predicated  upon  them  marked  distinctions 
of  race,  but  such  characters  of  art,  standing  alone, 
have  no  great  value  as  ethnic  criteria. 

"With  respect  to  the  mechanical  perfection  of  Mit- 
lan  work  in  stone,  it  may  be  said  that  environment 
probably  had  much  to  do  with  it.  The  trachytes  that 
surround  Mitla  break  down  in  great  blocks  along  the 
cliffs,  and  are  the  most  tractable  and  easily  manipu- 
lated of  the  building  stones.  Monte  Alban  furnished 
nothing  but  flinty  quartzite  and  gnarled  crystalline 
limestone ;  San  Juan  Teotihuacan  had  mainly  the 
most  intractable  forms  of  basaltic  lavas.  Such  rocks 
do  not  lend  themselves  to  the  pick  of  the  quarryman 
and  the  chisel  of  the  sculptor ;  otherwise  these  two 
cities  would  probably  have  contained  examples  of 
irchitectural  achievement  unequaled  in  America. 
Mitla  is  what  it  is  largely  because  of  the  presence  of 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  superb  and  easily  worked 
building  stone — the  soft,  massive,  yet  tough  and  dura- 
ble, trachytes." 

One  of  the  clusters  was  built  of  adobe  brick,  the 
others  chiefly  of  stone,  the  facing  of  the  walls,  cor- 
nices, trimmings  and  ornamentation  of  cut  stone,  and 
the  hearting  or  filling  of  the  pyramids,  terraces  and 
walls  of  rubble,  as  was  usual  in  the  entire  region. 
Mortar  was  generally  used  in  laying  the  stone.  Al- 
though sucli  advanced  art  is  exhibited  in  these  works, 


Monuments  of  Southern  Mexico. 


271 


e  purely 
contrast 
revalent 
las  been 
cance  of 
ure,  and 
tinctions 
g  alone, 

I  of  Mit- 
ronment 
ytes  that 
long  the 
manipu- 
urnished 
'ystalline 
linly  the 
icli  rockii 
arryman 
lese  two 
mples   of 
A.raerica. 
sence  of 
worked 
nd  dura- 
rick,  the 
alls,  cer- 
one,  and 
aces  and 
region. 
U>ne.     Al- 
e  works, 


no  traces  of  stairways  have  been  discovered.  The 
general  ground  plans  of  the  buildings  are  seen  in  the 
figure  (88) .  The  walls  are  massive,  being  usually 
over  four  feet  in  thickness  and  carried  up  vertically, 
and  faced  with  dressed  stone  or  plaster ;  tlie  inner 
faces  are  plastered  or  partly  or  wholly  covered  with 
geometric  mosaic  work.  Tlie  buildings  are  all  only  a 
single  story  in  heiglit,  the  ceilings  and  roofs  flat,  hav- 
ing apparently  been  supported  chiefly  by  wooden 
beams,  the  arch  not  being  used,  perhaps  not  known 
to  the  builders.  Where  the  rooms  or  halls  were  of 
considerable  width,  a  row  of  pillars  or  columns  was 
planted  along  the  middle,  in  order  to  furnish  addi- 
tional support  to  the  roof.     (Fig.  89.) 


^y-T" -.*«*^_-.^-\^i»,»,»;  a^-*^ 


^-idcSx^c£iFi'x^JlcAnbjii'^o^^^ 


Fig.  89.     Kuom  with  columns,  Mitla. 

The  surfaces  of  the  walls  were  uniformly  covered 
within  and  without  with  some  decorative  finish. 
Three  methods  of  embellishment  were  employed — 
painting,  sculpture  and  mosaic.     Mr.  Holmes,  whose 


272  Stmh/  of  Xorth  A)nn'ican  Archacohgi/. 


El. 


description  is  chiefly  followed  here,  notices  as  some- 
thing remarkable  the  absence  of  sculptured  life-forms. 
"Sculpture  in  its  more  restricted  and  commonly  ac- 
cepted sense  seems  to  have  been  tabooed  as  completely 
as  if  a  priestly  edict  had  been  promulgated,  forever 
prohibiting  it.  The  absence  of  sculptured  life-forms 
is  especially  remarkable,  since  such  forms  were  most 
extensively  embodied  in  other  branches  of  Mitlan 
work." 

The  peculiar  feature  of  these  structures  which  has 
attracted  most  attention  is  the  fretwork  decoration  of 
tlie  walls.  These  designs  are  all  jjurely  geometrical, 
yet  are  varied  and  attractive,  and  are  arranged  in 
panels  covering  the  exterior  surface  of  the  buildings, 
and  on  interior  surfaces  are  in  panels  or  continuous 
bands      The  most   remarkable  of  these  are  geometric 

fretwork  mosaics  made  up  of  sepa- 
rately hewn  or  carved  stones  in 
the  form  of  little  bi'icks  set  in 
mortar  to  form  ornamental  de- 
signs ;  some  are  angular  and 
curved  grecques  (Fig.  90).  The 
painted  designs  show  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  the  figures  of  the 
Mexican  Codices,  as  Fig.  91. 
Charney  seems  to  have  a  rather 
fel*HlSwilS^       poor  opinion    of   these   paintings, 

^7i5'^^3l^^      '^^  ^^  says  : 

"Below  are  found  traces  of  verv 
iMg.  91).    Fretwork  in  the       ...  .      .  . 

grand  palace,  Mitla.    Primitive   paintmgs,   representmg 

rude  figures  of  idols  and  lines 
forming  meanders,  the  meaning  of  which  is  unknown. 
The  same   rude  paintings  are  found  throughout  the 


^iiiuii;':s3iH;:?*.ji 


some- 
forms, 
nly  ac- 
plotely 
forever 
'-forms 
R  most 
Mitlaii 

Lch  has 
ition  of 
etrical, 
iged  in 
Lldings, 
tinuous 
ometric 
of  sepa- 
)nes  in 
set   in 


it 
ir 


al  de- 
and 
The 


ig- 


•ong  re- 

of  the 

91. 

rather 

ntings, 

of  very 
sentiug 


1 


lines 
known, 
out  the 


Monnmcnts  of  Southern  Mexico. 


273 


palace  in  sheltered  places  ■svliich    have    escaped  tlie 
ravaffes   of    time.      That    sucli    immature   drawing's 


o  o  o  o  o^o  o  o  o  o  o  o 


[i'3At2^  ^^jjyi)  t.':-°./  (^J.lii)  (£)  &  it)  &  v3 


Fig.  91.    Puiuted  desiguH,  Mitla. 

should  1)(!  found  in  palaces  of  beautiful  architecture, 
decorated  with  panels  of  exquisite  mosaic  work,  are 
facts  which,  at  first  sight,  make  it  difficult  to  ascribe 
tliem  to  the  same  people." 

According  to  Mr.  Bandelier,  the  ancient  pottery,  so 
far  as  seen  by  him,  was  uniformly  a  light  gray,  thick 
and  without  traces  of  paint.  Its  ornamentation  was 
overloaded,  grotesque  and  elaborate,  the  faces  often 
having  noses  exactly  like  the  so-called  "elephant 
trunk  ornament  of  tlie  Yucatec  ruins,  and  enormous 
head-dresses  encircling  rather  than  crowning  the 
face."' 

Nothing  is  known  in  regard  to  the  age  of  these 
structures  more  than  tlie  fact  tliat  they  were  in  ruins 
at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  concjuest.  Orozco  y  Berra 
thinks  tliey  were  destroyed  between  1490  and  loOO  in 
the  fierce  contests  between  the  Zapotecs  and  tlie 
Aztecs.  The  earliest  known  mention  of  the  place  is 
18 


274 


Study  of  Xorth  American  Airlmeidopy. 


by  Motolinia,  who  says  that  wlien  Fray  Martin  de 
Valencia  went  to  Tehuantepec  (about  I'iS'S)  with  some 
companions,  "they  passed  through  a  pueblo  which  is 
called  Mictlan,  signifying  hell  in  this  language,  where 
they  found  some  edifices  more  worth  seeing  than  in 
any  other  parts  of  New  Spain.  Among  them  was  a 
temple  of  the  demon,  and  dwelling  of  its  servants 
(ministros) ,  very  sightly,  particularly  one  hall  made 
of  something  like  lattice  work.  The  fabric  was  of 
stone,  with  many  figures  and  shapes ;  it  had  many 
doorways,  each  one  of  three  great  stones,  two  at  the 
sides  and  one  on  the  top,  all  very  thick  and  wide.  In 
these  quarters  there  was  another  hall  containing  round 
pillars,  each  one  of  a  single  piece,  and  so  thick  that 
two  men  could  barely  embrace  one  of  them ;  their 
height  might  be  five  fathoms.  Fray  Martin  said  that 
on  this  coast  people  would  be  found  handsomer  and 
of  greater  ability  than  those  of  New  Spain." 

Charney  sa^'^s  :  "It  will  be  apparent  to  the  reader 
that  the  ruins  at  Mitla  bear  no  resemblance  with  those 
of  Mexico  or  Yucatan,  either  in  their  ornamentation 
or  mode  of  building ;  the  interiors  have  no  longer  the 
overlapping  vault,  but  generally  consist  of  perpen- 
dicular walls,  supporting  fiat  ceilings,  so  that  it  seems 
almost  impossible  to  class  these  monuments  with 
those  of  Central  America.  Nevertheless,  there  are 
details  which  recall  Toltec  influence,  as  we  shall  show 
later."  However,  it  must  be  apparent  to  the  reader 
of  this  volume  that  there  is  a  resemblance  to  some  of 
those  we  have  described  in  the  following  particulars  : 
The  absence  of  the  vaulted  ceiling  ;  the  use  of  the  flat 
roof  sometimes  supported  by  interior  columns  ;  the 
partial  use  of   adobe,   apparently  a  survival  of  the 


Monuments  of  ISonihcrn  Mrj-ico. 


275 


[irtin  de 
ith  some 
which  is 
e,  where 
than  in 
a  was  a 
servants 
ill  made 
was  of 
.d  many 
0  at  the 
ide.  In 
ig  round 
ick  that 
1 ;  their 
said  that 
mer  and 


more  nortluM-n  custom  ;  and  tlio  method  of  licartiiig 
or  filling  in  tiio  walls,  terraces,  etc  The  painted  de- 
signs, as  already  stated,  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to 
Mexican  figures;  and  Cluirney  admits  that  "some 
of  the  details,  such  as  the  masks  and  the  small  t(>rrr. 
cotta  figures,  are  exactly  like  those  at  Teotihuacan, 
whilst  the  small  crosses  on  the  panels  of  tlie  great 
palace,  and  those  on  the  "a(;ade  of  the  fourth,  are*  fac- 
similes of  tliose  on  the  pri(^st  of  Quetzalcoatl  at 
Lorillard. ' '  The  liead-dresses  of  the  pottery  figures,  if 
Bandelier  be  correct,  are  similar  to  those  found  in 
several  othiM*  localities. 


B  reader 
Lth  those 
entation 
nger  the 
perpen- 
it  seems 
Its   with 
here   are 
lall  show 
le  reader 
)  some  of 
'ticulars : 
»f  the  flat 
ins  ;    the 
d  of  the 


270 


iStudij  of  Soi'th  American  Archaeology. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


MON't'MKNTH    OF    CKNTRAL    AMERICA. 

Passing  eastward  to  tlie  vicinity  of  the  Gulf  coast, 
we  enter  the  state  of  Tabasco,  and  after  a  brief  no- 
tice of  a  ruin  in  this  region  proceed  south-east  in  the 
direction  of  one  of  the  supposed  lines  of  prehistoric 
migration. 

At  Comalcalco  is  a  group  of  ruins  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  locality  and  character,  are  important 
in  studying  the  prehistoric  movements  of  population 
and  the  development  of  culture.  These,  according  to 
Charney,  from  whom  our  brief  notice  is  taken,  con- 
sist of  a  large,  irregular  mound,  or  pyramid,  and  su- 
perimposed works.  The  latter  include  two  quadran- 
gular towers,  a  long  building,  so-called  "palace," 
divided  into  two  lines  of  rooms  something  like  the 
Gobernador  at  Uxmal,  or  the  north  interior  building  of 
the  Palenque  palace,  and  two  mounds  which  are  prob- 
ably the  remains  of  structures  of  some  kind.  All, 
however,  are  in  such  a  ruinous  condition  that  it  is 
difficult  to  make  out  with  certainty  the  plans. 

The  palace,  of  which  but  a  small  portion  retains 
the  roof,  shows  the  angular,  slightly  concave,  vaulted 
ceiling,  the  sloping  frieze,  the  sliglitly  sloping  roof 
and  substantially  the  mode  of  structure  seen  at  Pa- 
lenque. From  Charney's  description,  which  is  some- 
what indefinite  andincoraplete,  we  quote  the  following  : 
"The  walls  of  the  palace  were  without  any  ornaraenta- 


^[()llln)U'lltx  of  Central  Anicrica. 


277 


f  coast, 
rief  uo- 
t  in  tho 
'historic 

,  on  ac- 
iportant 
pulation 
n'ding  to 
ccn,  con- 
and  su- 
uadran- 
Dalacc," 
ike  the 
Iding  of 
fire  prob- 
id.     All, 
hat  it  is 

retains 
vaulted 
)ing  roof 
at  Pa- 
is sorae- 
)llowing : 
namenta- 


n 


tion,  save  a  layer  of  sinootli  painted  cement  ;  iliey 
rose  perpendicularly  nine  feet  to  a  very  proj(>ctiiig 
cornice,  then  sloping  in  a  line  parallel  to  tho  corbel 
vault,  they  terminated  in  a  second  cornice  less  salient 
tlum  the  lirst,  both  serving  as  a  frame  to  a  frieze 
richly  decorated,  so  far  at  least  as  could  be  ascertained 
from  tho  fragments  strewing  the  ground.  Above  this, 
toward  tho  center  of  the  roof,  rose  a  decorated  wall. 
.  .  .  Tho  building,  including  tho  walls,  measures 
[in  width]  some  twenty-six  feet,  tho  walls  are  three 
feet  nine  inches  in  thickness,  the  size  of  tho  apart- 
ments is  about  eight  feet.  Tho  palace  was  brightly 
painted,  as  may  yet  be  seen  in  the  north  corner,  which 
is  of  deep  red.''  Ho  says  that  the  ornamentation  of 
one  of  the  towers,  of  which  portions  of  tho  wall  are 
yet  standing,  "must  have  been  gigantic;  tho  frag- 
ment [of  which  he  gives  a  figure]  which  was  found 
among  a  heap  of  rubbish  is  no  less  than  six  feet.  The 
figures  or  characters  on  the  wall  are  over  three  feet 
high  and  in  strong  relief."  His  description  leaves 
the  reader  in  doubt  as  to  the  material  used  and  com- 
position ;  however,  it  seems  to  have  been  in  part  or 
largely  adobe,  as  he  mentions  "the  wall  and  its  brick 
and  mortar  composition,"  and  remarks,  "If  baked 
bricks  mixed  with  thick  layers  of  lime  and  mortar 
were  substituted  for  stones,  it  is  because  none  are  to 
be  found  in  that  alluvial  plain."  Stairways  are  a 
feature  not  to  be  omitted  in  studying  these  remains. 

Facing  this  pyramid  to  the  north,  says  the  author 
quoted,  hidden  by  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  a  vir- 
gin forest,  are  three  other  pyramids,  all  crowned  by 
temples,  the  walls  of  which  are  still  standing.  In 
one  of  these  he  was  enabled  to  ascertain  the  sizes  of 


278  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


\ 


4 


some  of  the  brick  used.  Those  varied  from  6xDx  1 
tolGxllxl,  some  used  for  the  corners  measuring 
23x20x14  inches.  Numerous  otlier  ruins  in  the 
same  locality,  of  which   no  description  is  given,  are 


««?IB1^{^ 


Fig.  92.     Plan  of  the  ruins  at  Palenque. 

mentioned.  The  writer  qtioted  believes  that  some  of 
these  structure's  Avero  inhabited  at  the  advent  of  the 
Spaniards  ;  but  -without  a  mtich  full(>r  and  more  accu- 
rate description  no  satisfactory  conclusion  on  this 
point,  nor  as  to  their  general  features,  can  be  formed. 


^foriumoits  of  Central  America. 


279 


the 
are 


mm 


Entering  the  valley  of  the  Usuraacinta,  and  mov- 
ing up  to  the  Tunibula  foot  liills,  we  come  to  the 
noted  ruins  of  Palenque,  of  whicli  so  much  has  been 
said  and  written.  As  it  is  i)robable  all  the  readers  of 
this  little  work  have  read  more  or  less  in  regard  to 
the  palace,  temples  and  inscriptions  of  these"  ruins, 
only  such  features  will  be  noticed  as  seem  of  most  im- 
portance in  their  bearing  upon  the  culture  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  relation  of  the  art  types  of  these  structures 
to  the  types  of  other  sections.  Our  space  will  i)ermit 
no  more  than  this. 

The  ruins  consist  of  a  number  of  pyramids  crowned 
by  buildings,  supposed  to  have  been  used  chiefly  as 
temples  ;  the  largei-  one,  however,  has  generally  been 
termed  "The  Palace,"  from  the  supposition  that  it 
was  the  royal  residence.  A  sketch  map  copied  from 
Mr.  Holmes's  work— from  which  we  shall  chiefly 
draw  our  notice  of  architectural  details— is  shown  in 
Fig.  92 ;  in  this  the  principal  monuments  of  the  group 
are  indicated. 

The  palace,  which  is  the  large  structure  at  the  north 

(bottom)  of  the  sketch  is  the  chief  object  of  interest 

in    the    group,    and 

iiiir  \' ^ln''iimViitMlm|||li|li|||||||||||m||(Wv///x 
ry>  ■  '''''MlHla^,:;ll!|lll|;|||||1(||||JIW://^/<;4 

■v.imiifih/,:  ij>  ;...,„ ■  •  .    """" 


m  its  construction 
and  details  illus- 
trates the  consid(M'- 
able  advance  made 
by  the  builders  in 
architectural  art, 
though  less  profuse 
in  ornamentation, 
less  symmetrical  in 
form     and    inferior 


o^AV^n'.i 


Fijr.  93.    C round  plan  of  tlif  pjilace, 
I'ak'iiqiu'. 


2<S0  Stiidi/  of  I^^orth  Aincrica)t.  Ardiacologij. 


4 


in  some  otber  respects  to  some  of  tlio  Yucatoc  structures 
Av  lik'li  -svill  bo  noticed  hereafter.  The  ground  phm  of  the 
building  is  shown  in  Fig.  93,  This,  as  the  other  build- 
ings, stands  on  a  pyramidal  substructure  or  elevated 
platform,  in  this  case  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in 
height,  and  nirasuring  at  the  top  some  200  f(>et  from 
east  to  west  at  the  north  end,  and  225  from  north 
to  south.  The  lowci*  tcM-race  occupied  by  the  building 
at  the  soutli  entl  is  about  40  feet  wide  and  180  feet 
louii. 

The  structure  on  this  platform  is  compound,  the 
series  of  three  broken  lines  around  three  sides  and 
in  the  interior  representing  distinct  buildings,  while 
the  spaces  denote  open  courts  depressed  some  five  or 
six  feet  below  the  level  on  which  the  buildings  around 
them  stand.  The  square  near  the  center  is  a  tower. 
The  building  at  the  south  end  is  on  a  lower  teri'ace 
and  not  considered  a  part  of  the  group  on  the  upper 
level  of  the  pyramid.  All  the  buildings  of  the  upper 
level,  except  the  tower  and  that  immediately  south  of 
it,  are  double  vaulted,  as  shown  in  Fig.  94,  which  rep- 


a  d  be 

Fig.  (H.     Cross-section  of  paliic(>  at  Palenqne. 


resents  a  cross-section  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
group;  that  marked  a,  the  eastei-n  range;  d,  the 
great    coui't ;    h,    the    middle    i-ange ;     .",    the    north- 


we^iern    court ;    and    r,    the    westeri^ 


■mge. 


This 


Monuments  of  Central  America. 


'  281 


uctures 
11  of  the 
Y  buikl- 
ilevated 
feet  in 
ot  from 
n  iiovtb 
:»uildini; 
180  feet 

ind,  the 
des  and 
rs,  while 
B  five  or 
s  around 
a  tower, 
r  terrace 
le  upper 
10  upper 
south  of 
h:ch  rep- 


•t  of  the 
d,  the 
e  north- 
er.      This 


9 

I 
O 

y 


I 
I 


282 


Study  of  North  American  ArcJiaeulogy. 


.! 

'll 

k 

Lit 
It 


also  shows  tlie  vaulted  ceiling  and  the  form  of  tlio 
roof.  The  walls  are  about  three  feet  thick  and  rise 
vertically  nearly  ten  feet.  Tlie  roof  is  generally 
crowned  with  an  elevated  comb  and  the  slopes  filled 
with  elaborate  designs  in  stucco,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9-"), 
which  is  an  attempted  restoration  of  the  roof  of  one 
of  the  interior  palace  buildings.  The  ornamentation 
is  chiefly  aftei'  Charney's  idea,  but  the  comb  is  given 
according  to  the  author's  view. 

Large  slabs  are  used  in  the  construction  of  wall 
openings  and  the  projecting  portions  of  the  roof.  The 
outer  wall  of  the  surrounding  building,  that  facing 
the  great  court  on  the  east,  and  both  outer  walls  of 
the  interior  building  are  broken  into  rather  broad 
square  pillars.  Stephens  says  "the  whole  front  [east 
face]  was  covered  with  stucco  and  painted  ;  the  piers 
were  ornamented  with  spirited  figures  in  bas-relief." 
Broad  flights  of  steps  lead  up  from  tlie  court  to  the 
buildings  surrounding  it.  "On  each  side  of  the 
steps,"  says  the  author  last  quoted,  "are  grim  and 
gigantic  figures  carved  on  stone  in  bnsso-rclievo,  nine  or 
ten  feet  high,  and  slightly  inclined  backward  from  the 
end  of  tlie  steps  to  the  floor  of  the  corridor." 

The  ground  plans   of   other  structures  which   are 

supposed  to  be  temples,  most 
of  which  are  at  Palencjue, 
each  mounted  on  a  pyra- 
mid, are  represented  in  a 
general  way  in  our  Fig.  90. 
The  interior  of  the  pyra- 
mids have  not  been  exam- 
ined, but  from  indications 
there  c.mi  be  little  doubt  that  it  consists  of  a  heteroge- 


noE3 


Fig.  96.     Ground  plans   of 
Yiicatec  temples. 


uf  the 
id  rise 
lerally 
i  filled 

ig.  9'''>, 
of  one 

lit  alio  11 
i  given 

of  wall 
f.    The 
facing 
avails  of 
r  broad 
Qt  [east 
16  piers 
^relief." 
to  the 
of    the 
ira  and 
nine  or 
om  the 

lich   are 
}s,  most 

pyra- 

in    a 

90. 

i    pyra- 

exani- 

ications 

leteroge- 


■l^ig 


Monumenlti  of  Central  Anicrlro. 


283 


neous  mixture  of  earth  and  stone.  It  ■would  seem  that 
tlie  constrtiction  was,  in  some  cases  at  least,  carried 
up  with  vertical  walls  and  the  abutting  masonry  to 
form  the  slope  added  afterward,  as  at  ('oi)aii.  The 
platforms  were,  as  a  rule,  finished  in  c(>ment  or  con- 
crete, but  slabs  of  limestone  were  used  in  some  in- 
stances. The  support  over  the  doors  is  believed 
beyond  any  reasonable  doubt  to  have  l)een  w()od(>n 
beams,  though  all  had  disapiieared  at  the  lime  of 
Stephens's  visit. 

A  singular  feature  of  some  of  the  buildings  lu're  is 
the  roof-comb.  This,  which  runs  lengthwise  along 
the  crest  of  the  roof,  is  yet  standing  almost  complete 
over  the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
sharp  inverted  ^,  two  feet  wide  within  and  twelve 
feet  high.  Its  walls,  which  are  thr(>e  feet  thick  at 
bottom,  tliinning  to  two  feet  at  top,  are  perforated  in 
a  varied  and  striking  manner  and  finished  at  top  with 
a  slight  molding;  they  are  built  of  rather  small 
stones  well  set  in  mortar.  The  faces  and  ends  of  tliis 
strange  architectural  device  are  entirely  covered  with 
bold  mythological  designs  in  stucco,  and  Mr,  Holmes 
thinks  that  it  was  built  for  no  other  i)urposo  tlian  to 
display  these  figures. 

As  the  strange,  and,  in  some  cases,  remarkable  fig- 
ures carved  in  stone  and  modeled  in  stucco  liave  been 
repeatedly  pidilished,  and  the  hieroglyphics  carved  on 
stone  tablets  set  into  tlie  walls  have  also  been  fi'e- 
quently  reproduced,  and  have  been  referred  to  in  a 
previous  chapter,  these,  thougli  interesting  to  th(> 
general  as  well  as  scientific  reader,  must  be  omitted 
here.  Moreover,  we  deem  it  of  more  importance  as 
a   means   of   broad   comparisons    to   give    the    archi- 


284 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


N 


tectural  dptails   relating  to  the   forms  and  modes  of 
construction. 

The  liistory  of  the  city  of  which  these  ruins  are  the 
crumbling  remains,  and  wliicli  must  have  been  one 
of  importance,  and  at  some  period  one  of  power,  is 
hidden  in  the  gloom  of  the  past  seemingly  beyond  the 
possibility  of  recovery.  This  gloom  is  relieved  only 
by  a  few  faint  rays  cast  by  some  dim  and  scarcely  in- 
telligible traditions,  unless  the  city  should  yet  be  iden- 
tified with  the  Izancanac  visited  by  Cortez  on  his 
march  to  Honduras,  a  conclusion  discountenanced  by 
most  historians  and  antiquaries,  and  advanced  by 
but  one  of  the  exjilorers  of  that  region.  The  Tzental 
tradition  regarding  Votan,  their  culture  hero,  and 
some  faint  and  imcertain  echoes  from  Quiche  legends, 
are  all  tluit  have  come  down  to  the  present  day  in  re- 
gard to  its  past.  Like  Quetzalcoatl  of  Mexican  tra- 
dition, he  comes  from  the  eastern  coast,  clothed  as 
were  his  followers  in  long  gowns.  Wives  are  given 
to  his  followers,  and  ho  is  made  ruler  over  the  people 
who,  up  to  that  time,  had  lived  in  a  savage  state, 
knowing  nothing  of  agriculture  or  architectiu'e.  He 
instructs  them  in  these  arts,  forms  their  calendar, 
teaches  them  liow  to  record  events  in  hieroglyphic 
characters  and  builds  the  city  of  Nachan  ("City  of 
Serpents"),  which,  according  to  Ordonez,  is  identical 
with  Palenque.  Xibalba  of  the  Quiche  legends  has 
also  been  siq^posed  by  some  writers  to  refer  to  the 
same  city,  but,  as  Bancroft  remarks,  "the  difhculty 
of  disproving  the  identity  is  equaled  by  that  of  prov- 
ing it."  That  the  place  was  at  some  time  in  the  past 
one  of  importance  and  one  of  influence  among  the 
natives  of  this  region   may  be  assumed  from  the  ex- 


nodes  of 

s  are  the 
aeen  one 
power,  is 
'yond  the 
ved  only 
arcely  in- 
t  bo  iden- 
z   on  his 
lanced  by 
anced   by 
le  Tzental 
lero,   and 
0  legends, 
day  in  re- 
xican  tra- 
•lothed  as 
are  given 
he  people 
^e  state, 
lire.     He 
calendar, 
roglyphic 
("City  of 
identical 
i;ends  has 
or  to  the 
difficuUy 
of  prov- 
n  the  past 
^niong  the 
m  the  ex- 


Monnmcnts  of  Central  America. 


285 


tent  of  the  ruins.  However,  it  would  seem  that 
Charney  is  correct  in  considering  it  a  holy  place,  a 
religious  center,  a  city  of  temples. 

"This  important  city  is  apparently  without  civic 
architecture ;  no  public  buildings  are  found ;  there 
seems  to  have  been  nothing  but  temples  and  tombs. 
Consequently,  the  great  edifice  was  not  a  royal  palace, 
but  rather  a  priestly  habitation,  a  magnificent  convent 
occupied  by  the  higher  clergy  of  this  holy  center,  as 
the  reliefs  every -where  attest. 

"Had  Palenque  been  the  capital  of  an  empire,  the 
palace  a  kingly  mansion,  the  history  of  her  people, 
fragments  of  domestic  li.'c,  pageants,  recitals  of  battles 
and  conquests  would  be  found  among  the  reliefs  which 
ever}  "'i..:.ere  cover  her  edifice  ,  as  in  Mexico,  at 
Chichen-Itza,  and  other  cities  in  Yucatan ;  whereas, 
the  reliefs  in  Palenque  show  nothing  of  the  kind.  On 
them  we  behold  peaceful,  stately  subjects,  usually  a 
personage  standing  with  a  scepter,  sometimes  a  calm, 
majestic  figure  whose  mouth  emits  a  flame,  emblem  of 
speech  and  oratory.  They  are  surrounded  by  pros- 
trated acolytes,  whose  bearing  is  neither  that  of  slaves 
nor  of  captives ;  for  the  expression  of  their  counte- 
nance, if  submissive,  is  open  and  serene,  and  their 
peaceful  attitude  indicates  worshipers  and  believers  ; 
no  arms  are  found  among  these  multitudes,  nor  spear, 
nor  shield,  nor  bow,  nor  arrow,  nothing  but  preachers 
and  devotees." 

Although  the  ruins  at  Comalcalco  are  so  briefly  and 
imperfectly  described,  yet  this  description  is  sufficient 
to  indicate  a  decided  similarity  in  some  features  in  the 
mode  of  construction  to  those  at  Palenque. 

Proceeding  westward  up  the  valley  of  the  Usumacinta 


2S(') 


St  lid  1/  of  Sin'tJi  Aniii'icaii,  AirliacoJcxiy. 


into  the  inountiiiii  r(>gion  of  tlu>  Lacaiulons,  the  ruins 
(Icsfribcd  by  C'harncv,  and  to  which  he  lias  givcp  the 
name  "Loriihird  City"  (also  called  Menehe),  are 
reached.  According  to  this  writer,  the  number  of 
l)uildinu;s  'Mn  good  preservation  was  supposed  to  be 
twelve,"  six,  however,  "without  doors."  They,  like 
those  at  Talenque,  are  supported  on  terraces  or  pyra- 
mids faced  with  stones,  have  a  central  flight  of  steps, 
but  are  of  smaller  dimensions  and  not  so  richly  deco- 
rated. But  the  description  is  necessarily  incomplete, 
as  all  traces  of  outer  decoration  have  disappeared. 
Ilei-o  is  found  also  the  perforated  roof-comb  rising  to 
an  unusual  height.  The  ceilings  arc  triangular  vaults, 
straight  or  slightly  concave,  and  in  some  instances 
slightly  convex,  the  latter  being  a  feature  not  observed 
in  the  ruins  heretofore  described  or  in  those  of  Yuca- 
tan. Lintels  are  more  richly  sculptured  than  in 
Yucatan,  and  seem  to  replace  the  slabs  covered  with 


'■J*-»^  ■  ■<;  ^  ".«BtSS*''T.'^.-  '.-■ 


Fij:.  9V.    Scnlpti'.red  lintel,  Lorillard  City. 


yiiHiii iiiiiitK  i>f  f'niti'dl   Aiurricd. 


287 


he  ruins 
ivc'ji  the 
he),  are 
imber  of 
icd  to  bo 
'hoy,  like 
i  or  pyra- 

of  stops, 
!hly  doco- 
complete, 
appeared. 

rising  to 
.ar  vaults, 

instances 
fc  observed 
3  of  Yuca- 
l  than  in 
ered  with 


:** 


inscriptions  and  ilio  ornaniontod  pillars  at  Paloiujuo. 
Casts  of  throo  of  tlioso  obtained  by  ('harnoy  are  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  The  fijjuros  are  ex- 
ceedingly rich  in  ornamentation,  one  of  which  is 
shown  in  our  Fig.  97,  from  pliotograph.  One  of  tlie 
most  singular  objects  discovered  by  ('barney  was  a 
tireat  stone  idol  with  an  (Miormous  li(>ad-dress  rising  in 
the  form  of  u  fully  spread  fan.  lie  says  that  it  is 
"uni(jue  of  its  kind,  for  nothing  like  it  has  been  found 
eitherin  Tabast-o  or  Yucatan."  However,  Mr.  Bando- 
lier states  that  some  of  the  ancient  pottery  heads  from 
the  vicinity  of  Mitla  luive  enormous  jieud-dresses 
which  encircle  rather  tlian  crown  tlie  face,  i)robably 
similar  in  type. 

The  explorer  whose  description  has  boon  followed 
appears  to  lean  to  the  opinion  tliat  this  city  was  iidiab- 
itod  for  many  years  after  tlie  Spaniards  landed  on  the 
eastern  coast. 

Turning  now  to  the  oast,  we  enter  the  jioninsula  of 
Yucatan,  a  region  dotted  over  witli  monuments  showing 
the  most  advanced  architectural  art  of  Nortli  America. 
However,  the  description  of  a  few  ^^roups  will  suffice 
to  indicate  the  tyi>es.  The  people  who  occupied  tlie 
peninsula  at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  were  the 
Mayas  proper,  and  although  split  into  numerous  inde- 
pendent states,  spoke  the  same  language.  These,  of 
which  as  many  as  eighteen  are  enumerated  within  the 
bounds  of  the  peninsula,  were,  as  heretofore  stated, 
the  fragments  of  a  once  powerful  confederacy,  which 
had  broken  up  about  a  century  before  the  Spaniards 
appeared  in  their  midst.  Some  of  the  cities,  of  whicli 
these  ruins  mark  the  sites,  were  found  already  in 
ruins,  but  some  of  them  were  still  inhabited,  though 


2HS 


Study  of  North  Amcrirnn  Arch  ■ 


VI- 


h 


I  V 

I'! 

u 


SI 


soon  ubandotied  iiftei'  t]u>  cotKjiKM'ors  appeared  on  the 
scene.  Nevertheless,  it  is  ai^pareiit  that  their  golden 
era  had  passed,  and  that  the  inspiration  which  gave 
birth  to  the  numerous  temples  and  palatial  struc- 
tures had  disappeared.  Herrera  states  that  at  the 
fall  of  Mayapan  (which  he  places  in  l-JOO),  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  capital  of  the  confederacy, 
the  conquering  caciipies  took  away  all  the  books  of 
the  kind  they  had  that  they  could  obtain,  for  the  in- 
struction of  their  people,  and  on  their  return  home 
erected  temples  and  palaces,  which  is  the  reason  whj 
so  many  buildings  were  seen  in  Yucatan  ;  that  follow- 
ing the  division  of  the  territory  into  independent 
provinces,  the  people  multiplied  exceedingly,  so  that 
the  whole  region  seemed  but  one  single  city.  There 
are,  however,  few  students  who  will  believe  that  the 
numerous  structures,  whoso  ruins  are  now  scattered 
over  Yucatan,  were  built  during  the  seventy  or  eighty 
years  immediately  preceding  the  advent  of  the  Span- 
iards ;  nor  will  they  believe  the  division  into  inde- 
pendent nations  was  conducive  to  the  increase  and 
prosperity  of  the  people,  especially  in  view  of  liis 
statement,  confirmed  by  others,  that  during  some  of 
these  years  the  country  was  swept  by  tornadoes,  some 
years  by  the  pestilence,  and  during  others  by  tlie  de- 
vastation of  contending  armies  and  plundering  bands 
engaged  in  internecine  Avarfare. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  most  noted 
groups  of  the  peninsula  is  that  known  as  Uxmal, 
some  thirty-five  or  foi'ty  mil(>s  south  of  Merida.  This 
group  consists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  98,  of  some  five 
or  six  buildings,  mounted,  as  usual,  on  platforms 
or  pyramids,  a  tennis  court,  and  some  three  or  four 


MonumcnlH  of  Central  America. 


2Hy 


on  the 

J»ol(l(Ml 

•h  gave 
I   St  me- 
at the 
^•hich  is 
>(loracy, 
xMiks  of 
•  the  in- 
•n  home 
son  why 
t  follow- 
'pendent 
•,  so  that 
.     There 
that  the 
scattered 
or  eighty 
le  Span- 
ito  inde- 
ease  and 
w  of  his 
some  of 
)es,  some 
ly  the  de- 
n<i  bands 

3st  noted 
i  Uxmal, 
la.  This 
ome  five 
)hit  forms 
e  or  four 


Jill  an        M.C .-i  •  J  .--iJ 

,   f^-i       MM.  « 


— ■;■■  I.  .gsar.iaah 


I'  \  M  A  I. 


n 


tMH**   »*••■•■ 


V    .'( 


// 


/; 


'■••^. 


'rtriiV  J 

r t";-'.::i  v-rrcv-x    \ 

f-:  n      ji 


'  I  !J 


:  E^ISEEEO 


Li 


^, 


■4^. 


II 


Fig.  98.     Plan  of  ruins  at  Uxmal. 

mounds,  •whose  supt!rsiruclurcs,  if   any  ever  existed, 
hiive  disappeared.     Tlic  area  covered  by  tlie  main  group 
of  ruins  is  not  hirge,  jirobablv  not  more  than  hair  a  mile 
10 


290 


Stii<h/  of  Xortli  Annricdii  Archafology. 


a(iuan'.  hut  scattered  reinaitis  afc  found  beyond  this 
limit.  "The  place,  ^vhell  inhabited,"  remarks  a  re- 
cent visitor,  "must  have  been  extensive  and  itnpor- 
tant,  and  no  doubt  i)resented  a  brilliant  and  imposinj^ 
etl'ect.     Thouich  the  buildingH  are  now  much  disnum- 


Fi>;.  Ul).    Oriiaiuoiitation  oa  the  governor's  palace,  T'xinal. 

tied  ami  buried  in  a  deep  forest,  save  where  recent 
cleariiigs  liave  been  made,  they  are  still  impressive  in 
the  extremis,  and  it  is  difficult  to  realize  that  the  huge 
pyramidal  masses,  rising  like  hills  above  the  general 
level,  are  really  wholly  artificial." 


i\funiiinents  of  Cnit'al  America. 


291 


id  this 
s  a  Tv- 
iinpor- 

Usiuaii- 


T'xmiil. 

ere  recent 
)ressive  in 
t  the  huge 
ho  general 


Tile  Ciisa  del  (Mtlx-rnador,  or  (Jovcrnor's  House, 
reared  on  the  iippcrniost  of  three  siiec-essive  colossal 
terraces,  and  forming  the  hirge  central  ground  plan  in 
Kig.98,  is  the  most  extensive,  best  known  and  inoHt 
inay:nificent  monument  of  Central  America.  The  sec- 
ond  of  these  terraces  forms  a  broad  esplanade  in  front 
of  the  building;  the  third,  set  back  somewhat  toward 
the  rear,  is  long  and  narrow,  so  as  to  leave  a  promenade 
of  thirty  feet  around  tlie  house.  The  latter  is  ex- 
cessively long  in  proportion  to  the  width,  the  length 
being  about  325  feet,  while  the  width  is  only  forty 
feet.  The  height  to  the  levcd  toj)  is  twenty-six  feet, 
nearly  one-half  of  this  height  on  the  exterior  face  be- 
ing occupied  by  an  imm(>nse,  jirofusely  ornamented 
frieze,  ten  feet  wide,  running  entirely  around  the  four 
walls  of  the  building,  a  distance  of  about  725  feet. 
This  elalH)rate  ornamentation  (Fig.  99) ,  which  is  all 
in  wrought  stone,  consists  of  a  checkered  or  lattice 
background  ;  C{re(>k  frets,  series  of  bars  terminating 
with  serpent  heads,  the  interspaces  being  covered 
with  hieroglyphs  ;  human  figures  with  immense 
head-dresses  over  the  doorways  (the  human  figures 
have  all  been  broken  away)  ;  and  an  upper  lino  of 
great  stone  masks,  with  long,  curved,  proboscis-like 
noses.  The  other  facing  of  the  walls  without  and 
within  is  of  the  gray  limestone  of  the  region,  in 
large,  squarish  blocks,  generally  cut  and  laid  with 
great  precision,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  plain. 

This  long  and  narrow  building  is  divided  length- 
wise into  two  series  of  rooms  by  a  middle  wall,  the 
entrance  being  from  the  front ;  the  rear  wall  is  nine 
feet  thick  and  without  opening,  except  at  the  recesses 
near  the  ends.     The  width  of  the  rooms  is  limited  by 


292 


Stiidi/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


the  span    of   tlie    wedge-sliaped    arch    of   the   ceiling 
which  rarely  exceeds  ten  or  twelve  feet.      (Fig.  100. ) 


Fig.  100.     Section  of  the  Casa  del  Gobernador. 

The  so-called  Nunnery  is  a  great  quadrangle,  con- 
sisting of  four  rectanguhir  structures  surrounding  an 
open  court,  wliicli  stand  on  terraces,  leaving  open 
spaces  at  the  four  corners,  the  south  building  alone 
having  an  entry  way  through  it.  The  inner  facades 
facing  the  court  have,  on  the  upper  part,  like  that  of 
the  Governor's  House,  a  broad,  richly-ornamented 
frieze  reaching  from  the  top  of  the  doorways  to  the 
fiat  roof.  Those,  in  variety  of  designs  and  delicacy 
of  finish,  probably  exceed  those  of  the  Governor's 
House.  Among  these  designs  the  great  snouted  mask 
is  prominent,  being  found  on  all  the  fronts,  and  on 
tlie  north  side  is  placed  in  vertical  tiers  of  five  or  six 
at  the  corners  and  over  alternate  doorways.  These 
masks  are  formed  by  the  arrangement  of  minor  feat- 
ures and  are  rectangular  in  outline.  They  are  prob- 
ably intended  to  represent  the  Tlaloc  or  rain  god  of 


Monuments  of  Central  America. 


293 


ceiling 
100.) 


igle,  coll- 
iding an 
ng  open 
g  alone 
facades 
that  of 
ameuted 
s  to  the 
delicacy 
ivernor's 
ed  mask 
and  on 
ve  or  six 
These 
nor  feat- 
ire  proh- 
n  god  of 


the  Mayas ;  whether  Itzarana  or  Cukulcan,  is  uncer- 
tain ;  the  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  former  is 
intended.  (Fig,  101.)  A  similar  arrangement  of  some- 
what similar  faces  is  seen  in  some  of  tlie  designs  of  tlie 
north-west  coast  (Fig.  70)  ;  even  the  great  nose  is  some- 
times present,  especially  on  their  totem  posts,  but  in 
tlie  form  of  a  bird's  bill  instead  of  tlie  ek'i:)haut  or 
tapir  gnout.  The  upward  curve  in  the  mask  snouts 
of  Central  America  give  the  idea  that  it  was  derived 
in  some  way  from  the  elephant  form  instead  of  from 
the  tapir  snout,  wliicli  has  a  slightly  downward  curve. 
However,  figures  in  the  Dresden  Codex  evidently  in- 
tended to  represent  tapirs  have  the  snout  curved  up- 
ward fully  three-(|uarters  of  an  entire  circuit. 

Next  to  the  masks  the  most  im- 
portant feature  in  the  ornamentation 
of  these  fa<;ades  is  the  serpent,  the 
arrangement  of  wliich  along  the 
face  and  around  tlie  panels  is  con- 
sidered a  masterpiece  of  decorative 
sculpture,  and  brings  to  mind  the  "  \\ 
introduction  of  the  serpent  in  'he 
sculpturing  of  some  of  the  temples  of 
Cambodia. 

As   an    entire    chapter   would    not 

suffice    to  describe   all    the   ruins   of 

this  ancient  city,  brief    reference   to 
,      .     ,  1  11  Fig.  101.    Ornamen- 

bat   two    more    can    be    made     here,     f ,.       ,.,    ,.     , 

tation  of  thc>un  s 

The  Temple  of  the  Dwarf  or  Magician     jmiaco,  I'xmiil. 
is  noted  as  a  prominent  object  of  the 
group  because  of  the  very  steep  pyramid  on  which  the 
building  stands.     The  tem))le  itself  is  small  and  in- 
significant ;  the  unusiuil  feature  of  the  pile  is  a  temple 


m 


I*-"  "  ■  i^-'-    II  iiW> 


294  Study  of  NortJt.  American  Archaeology . 


\ 


built  against  and  into  the  north  side  of  the  pyramid, 
its  roof  being  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  pyramid. 
The  front  of  this  temple  is  about  twenty-two  feet 
square  and  is  entirely  covered  with  ornamental  work. 
The  large  doorway  is  occupied  by  a  colossal  snouted 
face  or  mask  twelve  feet  square,  made  up  of  striking 
and  unusual  details.  Among  these  was  probably  a 
life-size  statue  (now  lost)  standing  on  the  snout  and 
resting  against  the  forehead ;  others  are  a  pair  of 
tigers.  The  corner  decorations  comprise  smaller 
masks,  seven  in  each  tier. 

The  House  of  Pigeons  (Casa  do  Palomas),  as  will 
be  seen  by  reference  to  the  plan  sketch,  is  a  quadran- 
gular structure  placed  against  the  tei'race  of  a  pyramid. 
Its  prominent  featui'es  are  an  arched  opening  of  un- 
usual size  through  the  front  building  and  the  immense 
serrated,  perforated  comb  which  rises  above  the  front 
wall. 

The  facing  of  the  buildings  is  of  cut  stone  ;  the  ial- 
ing  of  the  walls  and  mounds  is,  as  usual,  of  broken 
stone  set  in  a  liberal  matrix  of  whitish  mortar  made 
of  lime.  "The  facings  and  ornaments,"  says  Mr. 
Holmes,  "are  all  cut  and  sculptured  with  a  masterly 
handling  not  surpassed  where  chisels,  picks  and  ham- 
mers of  iron  and  steel  arc  used,  and  the  faces  and  con- 
tact margins  are  hewn  with  perfect  precision.  Though 
the  finish  of  the  surfaces  was  often  secured  by  means 
of  abrasion  or  grinding,  picking  or  pecking  were  the 
main  agencies  employed,  and  the  indents  of  the  tool 
are  often  apparent  and  wonderfully  fresh  looking." 

This  city  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  or  enlarged 
by  the  Tutul-Xiu — of  wliom  further  mention  will  be 
made   in    a   future    chapter — and    their   reign,    with 


Monmnenh  of  Ce„tral  Amerini.  21»5 

Uxmal  as  thoir  capital,  was  tlic  most  s^^lonous  period 
of  Mayan  l.istorv,  probably  cxtoruling  from  the  early 
part  of   the   twelfth    century  until    ait(>r  the   fall   of 
Mayapan.     Why  this  city,  tlio  capital  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced  native  culture,  was  abandoned   by  the  Xiu 
•md  Mani  selected  as  their  seat-which  they  occupied 
at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards-is  unknown.     That 
Lxmal  was  inhabited,  at  least  to  some  extent,  at  the 
arrival  of  the  Sjianiards,  appeai-s  to  be  proved  ])eyond 
any  reasonable  doubt,  and  is  generally  conceded  " 


'21H]  Studi/  of  JSoi'Ul  Aiucrlcuu  ^Irckacvloyii. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


CHKUIKN-ITZA,   TIKAI,    AM)    COI'AN. 


Cliichon-It/a,  to  ■vvliich  the  reader's  attention  is  now 
called,  vies  in  the  grandeur  and  extent  of  its  remains 
^vith  Uxmal.  Like  the  latter,  it  is  situated  in  the 
midst  of  a  forest-covered  plain,  whose  monotony  is 
broken  only  by  minor  irregularities  of  the  rocky  sur- 
face. Its  name,  ■which  signifies  "The  Mouth  of  the 
Well  of  the  Itzas,"  is  supposed  to  have  been  given 
because  of  the  presence  of  two  great  natural  wells  or 
cenotes  within  its  area.  The  principal  ruins  are  in- 
cluded in  an  area  considerably  less  than  a  mile  square, 
and  consist  of  half  a  dozi'ii  important  piles,  with 
remains  of  numerous  inferior  sti'uctures  scattered 
about,  which  have  not  been  explored.  The  pyramid- 
temple  is  the  prevailing  type,  though  some  of  the 
buildings  are  on  the  natural  surface  ;  the  ground  plans 
are  mostly  simple  arrangements  of  corridors,  vesti- 
bules and  chambers;  the  wall;-  are  mostly  vertical, 
the  upper  zone  of  the  outer  face  ornamented,  the 
lower  portion  plain  ;  the  roofs  are  level  and  covered 
Avith  cement  and  the  floors  are  mostly  of  cement. 
Oi'dinary  surface  masonry  is  often  irregular,  imper- 
fectly hewn  stones  laid  up  with  littl(>  skill ;  but  im- 
poi'tant  wall  surfaces  art>  gencally  faced  with  accu- 
ral ly  hewn  blocks,  neatly  laid,  b  with  little  mortar 
excei)t  at  the  back.     Here,  as  elsewhei'o  in  Yucatan, 


Chichen-Ttzn,  Tihal  and  Copan. 


297 


is  now 
ro  mains 
,  in  the 
)tony  i» 
L'ky  sur- 
h  of  the 
n  given 
wells  or 
,  are  in- 
p  square, 
OS,  with 
scattered 
jyraniid- 
e  of  the 
nd  plans 
vesti- 
vcrtical, 
tod,  the 
covered 
cement. 
,  imper- 
but  im- 
th  accu- 
0  mortar 
Yucatan, 


the  wooden  lintel  was  the  woak  feature  of  the  con- 
struction. 

"Tlie  sttidy  of  even  a  single  example  of  the  great 
fa9ades,"  says  Mr.  Holmes,  from  whom  our  notes  on 
the  architectural  features  are  chiefly  drawn,  "is  suffi- 
cient to  impress  upon  one  the  vast  importance  of  the 
sculptor's  work,  but  the  immense  range  of  his  ileld 
is  appreciated  when  tlie  heavy  rattl(>snake  columns, 
the  colossal  serpent  b- lustrades,  tlie  long  lines  of 
caryatid-atlantean  figures,  and  the  grapliic  relief 
sculptures  of  temple  in*^eriors  and  pillars  have  been 
passed  in  review.  The  life  subjects  had  perhaps  in 
all  cases  a  mythologic  origin  and  application,  being 
employed  in  buildings  or  situations  consistent  with 
tlieir  symbolism.  Purely  geometric  motives  are  nu- 
merous, important  and  highly  varied  and  specializ(Hl, 
indicating  on  the  part  of  this  people  a  ripe  experience 
in  various  branches  of  art  in  which  the  esthetic  had 
equal  consideration  with  th6  symbolic." 

Although  tliere  was  but  little  modeling  in  stucco 
here,  plaster  was  universal ;  every  impcM'fect  siu'face 
was  made  even  by  this  means,  and  then  trc^ated  with 
colors  which  were  varied  and  brilliant.  The  general 
plan  of  dividing  the  building  into  rooms  with  vaulted 
ceilings,  as  heri^tofore  desci'bed,  was  followed  here. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  renuiins  of  this  group, 
in  some  respects,  is  the  so-called  Nun's  Palace,  a 
ground  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  102.  This  is 
in  three  stories;  the  lower  stage,  some  ten  feet  high, 
although  vertical,  with  moldings  around  the  top  and 
a  narrow  ledge  around  the  bottom,  is  apparently  solid. 
Ascent  to  the  second  and  third  stories  was  made  by 
broad    stairways   in  front,   as  shown  in   the  ground 


298 


Stn(h/  of  North  Aiiim'nni  Archavohupj . 


plan.  'I'hc  iDortiuii  of  tlio  .second  story  ])iiilding  sup- 
porting the  small  u[)i)er  story  is  also  solid,  tlie  tilling 
up  having  ai)pairntly  been  an  after-thought  for  the 
purpose  of  su[)porting  the  small  iipp(>r  structure. 

The  door  jambs,  lintels  and  roimded  corners  of  the 
building  are  formed  of  stones  of  large  size.  Mr. 
Holmes  thinks  the  most  striking  peculiarity  observed 
here  is  the  retreating  profile  of  the  upp(>r  -wall,  a 
character  occurring  rarely  in  Yucatec  buildings,  but 
almost  univei'sal  in  the  Usumacinta  province.  This 
fact,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter,  becomes  important  in 


Fig.  lO'i.    Ground  plan  of  Nunnery,  Chichcn-Itza. 

tracing  the  development  of  art  in  this  region.  This 
building  is  also  unique  in  regard  to  its  decorations. 
The  lower  wall  is  elaborately  embellished  with  geo 
metric  sculptures  arranged  in  large  panels.  The 
large  panels  in  the  ends  of  the  building  are  filled  with 
heavy  lattice  work.  The  ornamentation  of  the  upper 
story,  as  given  by  Charney,  consists  chiefly  of  panels 
with  central  rosettes. 

This  building  has  associated  with  it,  as  seen  in  the 
ground  plan,  an  L-shapcd  adjimct,  and  two  small  de- 
tached structures,  standing  on  the  natural  ground 
surface.     The   first   of  these — the   adjunct — is  about 


T    SUp- 

bi'  the 

13. 

of  the 
.     Mr. 

iserved 
vail,  a 
gs,  but 
This 
tant  in 


Chichen-Itzn ,  Tikal  and  Copaii. 


299 


This 
rations, 
ith  geo 
The 
od  with 
le  upppf 
f  panels 

'U  in  the 
mail  de- 
uround 
•is  about 


twenty-three  feet  high.  The  lower  portion  of  the 
outer  face  of  the  north  and  south  walls  has,  alternatinir 
with  the  doorways,  the  usual  mask  and  lattice  decora- 
tions in  panels,  togetlier  with  some  plain  spaces.  The 
fayade  on  the  east  is  filled  with  two  tiers  of  great 
snouted  masks  at  the  right  and  left  of  tho  doorway. 
The  form  of  these  snouts  is  shown  in  Fig.  103.  The 
upper  zone  presents  one  of  the 
most  richly  decorated  spaces  of  its 
kind  in  America.  The  north  side 
contains  six  mask  panels,  with 
three  rosette  panels ;  the  east 
fagade  has  a  central  panel  over  the 

door,  in  which  is  a  sitting  figure,  „.    ,„„  ^^i    i     *.      i 
»  »     o        '  Fig.  103.  Elephant  trunk 

and  mask  panels  at  the  right  and       ligure,  Ymiatan. 
left.  Even  the  flaring  coping  stones 
on  the  south  front  are  embellished  with  three  examples 
of,  what  are  supposed  to  be,  Tlaloc  symbols  as  they 
embody  the  projecting  snout  and  fivo  or  six  pendant 
lines  or  grooves  suggesting  the  rain  god. 

Another  interesting  ruin  of  this  group  is  the  Tower, 
or  Caracol,  so  named  because  of  a  special  stairway 
extending  upward  through  the  columnar,  central  mass 
of  the  building.  It  is  mounted  on  the  second  terrace 
of  a  broaO.  elevated  platform,  as  shown  in  the  vertical 
section,  Fig.  104,  which  passes  through  the  center. 


Fig.  104.    Vertical  section  cf  the  Caracol  or  Tower,  Chichen-Itzii. 


300 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


m 


Tlio  lower  terrace  is  about  twenty  feet  high  and  the 
upper  one  twelve.  The  tower  is  a  regular  circle  about 
thirty-nine  or  forty  feet  in  diameter,  and  when  com- 
plete was  probably  about  the  same  height.  The 
ground  plan  is  seen  in  Fig.  105. 


Fig.  105.     (irouiul  plan  of  the  tower,  Chif'lien-Itza. 

The  most  imposing  monument  of  Chichen-Itza  is 
the  so-called  Castillo  or  Castle,  This  consists  of  a 
steep  terraced,  or  stepped  pyramid,  seventy-five  or 
eighty  feet  high,  and  a  block-like  superstructure.  The 
sides  of  the  pyramid  rise  at  an  angle  of  about  fifty 
degrees,  and  are  divided  into  nine  steps ;  a  broad 
stairway  of  hewn  stone  ascends  the  middle  of  each 
face.  One  at  least  of  these  stairways,  and  probably 
all,  were  bordered  by  a  kind  of  balustrade  represent- 
ing a  serpent,  terminating  nt  the  base  in  a  great  ser- 
pent head  with  protruded  tongue.  The  plan  of  the 
temple  is  of  the  usual  form  ;  a  front  entry  extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  building,  from  w^hich  a  door- 
way leads  into  an  interior  dark  room,  around  three 
sides  of  which  runs  a  hall  with  doorways  at  the  sides 


Chichen-Tlza,  Ttkal  and  Cnpnn. 


301 


and  the 
;le  about 
en  com- 
t.      Tho 


tza. 

en-Itza  is 
sists  of  a 
ty-five  or 
lire.  The 
ibout  fifty 

;  a  broad 
le  of  each 
.  probably 

represent- 

great  ser- 
lan  of  the 

extending 
eh  a  door- 
Dund  three 
it  the  sides 


and  roar  leading;  out  of  tlio  building,  hut  not  connect  in<r 
"witli  tlu>  inner  room.  The;  great  front  opening  is  in- 
terrupted by  two  equally  spaced  columns  which  support 
tlie  wooden  lintel.  These  columns,  which  are  circular, 
are  carved  to  rc'present  tho  body  of  a  feathered  ser- 
pent, almost  exactly  like  those  seen  at  Tula,  the  head 
being  bent  outward  at  (he  base.  Columns  of  tho  same 
form  are  seen  again  in  this  group  at  the  so-called 
House  of  tho  Tigers.  The  chief  sculptures  in  tho 
Castle  are  representations  of  tho  human  form.  These 
are  elaborately  costumed  and  have  stern  features. 
Some  of  the  figures  seen  here  are  furnislied  with 
long,  full  beards.  Two  Atlantean  forms  are  shown 
in  Fig.  100. 

The  Gymnasium,  House  of  tho  Tigers  and  other  in- 
teresting monuments  must  bo  passed 
without  notice  in  our  necessarily  brief 
account. 

In  studying  the  ruined  cities  of  Yu- 
catan and  attempting  restoration,  wo 
should  bear  in  mind  the  following 
statement  by  Landa,  who  was  in  that 
country  as  early  as  ir)40  :  "Before  tho  Fig.  lOG.  Sculptur- 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  the  aborig-  ed  Atlantean  fig- 
ines  lived  in  common,  were  ruled  by  ^^^'^' 
severe  laws,  and  the  lands  were  cultivated  and  planted 
with  useful  trees.  The  center  of  their  towns  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  temples  and  squares,  round  whicli  were 
grouped  the  palaces  of  the  lords  and  the  priests,  and 
so  on  in  successive  order  to  the  outskirts,  wliich  were 
allotted  to  the  lower  ch.sses.  The  wells,  necessarily 
few,  were  found  close  to  the  dwellings  of  the  nobles, 
who  live  in  close  community  for  fear  of  their  enemies, 


302  Study  of  North  Anicrican  Airhaeolngy. 


t! 


\ 


and  not  until  tho  time  of  the  Spaniiirds  did  tliey  take 
to  the  woods." 

The  culture  hero  of  Chiclu'n-Ttza  was,  according  to 
tradition,  Cukulcan,  a  name  nignifying  "Feathered 
Serj^ent."  According  to  Landa,  it  was  said  that  he 
arrived  from  the  west,  but  whetlier  with  or  after  tlie 
Itzaos  was  not  statid,  but  probably  after  the  city  had 
been  founded.  According  to  the  same  authority,  tlio 
principal  edifice,  built  no  doubt  long  after  his  depart- 
ure, was  named  Cukulcan.  It  was  through  hira  the 
people  obtained  tlunr  arts,  religion  and  mode  of 
government.  After  ruling  over  Chichen  for  a  time  he 
removed  to  Mayapan  and  founded  that  city.  At  length 
he  disappeared  to  be  known  and  honored,  as  the  tradi- 
tion asserts,  as  the  god  Quetzalcoatl  in  Mexico.  In 
Mayapan,  a  temple  was  built  in  his  honor,  as  at 
Chichen,  which  Landa  says  was  round,  with  four 
doorways.  The  fact  that  explorers  have  found  at 
Mayapan  and  ('hichen,  and  nowhere  else  in  Yucatan, 
two  circular  temples  entered  by  four  doors,  is  seem- 
ingh'  a  partial  confirmation  of  this  tradition. 

Tlie  date  of  tlie  founding  of  Cliichen  is  of  course 
unknown,  yet  the  traditions,  as  shown  by  the  author 
in  his  "Study  of  the  Manuscript  Troano,"  appear  to 
indicate  the  sixth  century  a.  d.  as  the  probable  date. 
However,  as  the  place  was  inhabited,  at  lease  in  part, 
at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  it  is  probable  that  the 
structures,  whose  ruins  now  mark  the  site,  were  built 
long  after  tliat  date.  One  destruction  of  the  city  is 
mentioned  in  the  traditions.  As  will  appear  in  a 
subsequent  chapter,  there  are  some  reasons  for  be- 
lieving that  the  Itzaes  came  to  this  locality  from  the 
Peten  region  further  south.  * 


Chirhcn-Itza,  Tikal  and  Copan. 


303 


lioy  take 

rding  to 
oathered 

that  ho 

after  the 

city  had 

)rity,  the 

s  depart- 

hira  the 
mode  of 
1  time  he 
\t  length 
the  tradi- 
xico.  In 
31*,  as  at 
nth  four 
found  at 
Yucatan, 

is  seem- 

f  course 
le  autlior 
appear  to 
jle  date, 
c  in  part, 
that  the 
ere  built 
le  city  is 
car  in   a 
s  for  be- 
frora  the 


As  the  remains  of  Palonque.  Uxmal  and  ('hichen- 
Itza  indicate  the  leading  architectural  types  of  Cen- 
tral America,  brief  n>ferences  only  will  be  made  to 
some  of  the  jiarticiilar  features  of  the  remainder  of 
this  district. 

Extensive  ruins  have  been  discovered  at  Tikal, 
about  twenty  miles  north-east  of  PetcMi,  wliicli  are  in 
some  respects  remarkable.  One  of  the  pyramids,  in- 
cluding? its  superstructure  of  three  stories,  measured, 
according  to  Maudslay  (i)robably  up  the  slope),  nearly 
300  feet,  which,  with  its  liiu^  wood  and  stone  carvings, 
this  explorer  thinks  "must  have  taken  hundreds  of 
active  miiuls  and  thousands  of  skilled  hiuuls  to  have 
raised  and  ])erfected  and  kvpt  in  order."  Here,  as  at 
Copan,  some,  at  least,  of  tlie  pyramids  are  carried  up 
in  great  steps.  IIcm'o  also  has  been  found  the  finest 
native  wood-carving  of  America,  so  far  as  known. 
The  chief  features  of  this  magnificent  sculpture,  which 
the  size  of  our  page  will  not  permit  us  to  introduce, 
are  an  enormous  arched  and  profus(>ly  ornamented 
serpent,  holding  between  its  expanded  jaws  a  human 
form  with  lofty  head-dress ;  and  beneath  the  serpent 
fold,  a  standing  human  figure  with  shield  on  the  left 
arm  and  holding  a  staff  or  lance  in  the  right  hand. 
This  figure  is  literally  enveloped  in  ornaments.  In 
the  upper  right  and  left-hand  corners  are  several 
columns  of  hieroglyplis  skillfully  and  accurately 
carved,  among  which  can  bo  easily  recognized  day 
symbols  with  numerals  attached,  showing  not  only 
the  forms  found  at  Palenque  and  in  the  manuscripts, 
though  more  ornamental,  but  indicating  also  precisely 
the  same  order  in  counting  the  day  series. 

The   ruins   at  Quirigua,  on   Rio   Motagua,  eastern 


304 


Stuih/  of  Xortli  Amrrican  Archaculog}/. 


i 


(TUMtomaln,  which  havo  Ix'cti  ox|)h)n'<l  and  described 
\)\  Mr.  Maiulslay,  may  be  briclly  svimiuarized  as  fol- 
h)ws  :  Niiineroiis  siiuarc  or  ()bh)n^  inoiiiuls  and  tor- 
races,  varyiiij^  in  heii^ht  from  six  to  forty  feet,  som(^ 
isohiteil,  others  clustered  in  irre^iihir  groups,  most  t)f 
which  are  faced  with  worked  stone,  and  w(>re  ascended 
by  lli<^hts  of  stone  steps.  Some  thirteen  or  more 
larj^e  carved  monoliths,  arranged  irregularly  around 
what  were  probal)ly  the  most  important  plazas  of  the 
city  or  pueblo.  Six  of  these  monuments  arc  tall  stones 
measuring  three  to  five  feet  square  and  standing  four- 
teen to  twenty  feet  out  of  the  ground.  Five  are 
oblong  or  rounded  blocks  of  stone,  shaped  so  as  to  repre- 
sent huge  turtlt  s  or  armadillos  or  some  such  animals. 
All  these  monoliths  are  covered  with  elaborate  carvings  ; 
usually,  on  the  front  and  back  of  the  taller  ones,  there 
is  carved  a  huge  human  figure  standing  full-face  in  a 
still"  and  conventional  j 'titude.  The  sides  of  these 
monuments  ai'e  covereu  with  tables  of  hieroglyphs, 
and  in  addition  to  these  tables  of  hieroglyphs  there 
are  series  of  squares  or  cartouches  of  what  appears  to 
be  actual  picture  writing,  each  division  measuring 
about  eighteen  inches  square,  and  containing  usually 
two  or  three  grotesque  figures  of  men  and  animals. 
Some  of  the  figures  in  these  monoliths  appear  to  be 
females.  The  hieroglyphs  are  of  the  same  type  as 
those  already  mentioned,  the  day  symbols  and  numer- 
als, so  far  as  determinable,  being  similar  to  those  at 
Tikal. 

Hundreds  of  ruins,  many  of  them  interesting,  are 
scattered  over  Chiapas,  Guatemala  and  Honduras. 
Quito  a  number  of  these  have  recently  been  examined 
by   Dr.   Carl   Sappei",  whose   drawings,  showing  the 


scribed 

as  fol- 
iid   tor- 
t,  some 
most  of 
^ccndccl 
r   more 
around 
s  of  the 
11  stones 
nil  four- 
i'ive  are 
to  repre- 
inimals. 
[irvings ; 
OS,  there 
ace  in  a 
of  these 
of^lyphs, 

IS  there 
)pears  to 
oasuring 
usually 

animals. 

ar  to  be 

type  as 

numer- 

those  at 

iting,  are 
onduras. 
"xamini'd 
^ving  the 


Cfiirhni-It:a,  Tiknl  and  Copon. 


305 


ground  ))lans  of  the  structures,  witli  brief  oxplaiuitory 
notes,  make  it  evident  that  they  arc,  In  an-angcincnt 
and  general  diaracter,  substantially  of  the  Copan 
type.  For  this  reason,  a  brief  account  of  this  impor- 
tant typo  is  given  before  closing  the  (l(>scriptive  por- 
tion of  our  Mork. 

These  ruins  are  situated  witliin  the  boundary  of 
Honduras,  some  twenty-live  or  thirty  miles  directly 
south  of  Quirigua,  a  portion  of  the  area  being  bounded 
by  Copan  river.  Fortunately  for  students,  a  descrip- 
tion of  these  ruins,  written  as  early  as  ir)76  by  Diego 
de  Palacio,  has  been  preserved,  which  Mr.  Maudslay, 
who  has  devoted  much  time  in  oxi)loring  the  ruins, 
considers  more  than  ordinarily  trustworthy  for  the 
time  it  was  written,  as  ho  remarks  :  "This  description 
is  such  a  one  as  might  luive  been  written  by  any  in- 
telligent visitor  within  even  the  last  few  years."  It 
is  as  follows  ; 

"Near  here,  on  the  road  to  the  city  of  San  Pedro, 
in  the  first  town  within  the  province  of  Honduras, 
called  Copan,  are  certain  ruins  and  vestiges  of  a  great 
population  and  of  superb  edifices,  of  such  skill  and 
splendor  that  it  appears  they  could  never  have  been 
built  by  the  natives  of  that  province.  They  are 
found  on  the  banks  of  a  beautiful  river,  in  an  exten- 
sive and  well-chosen  plain,  temperate  in  climate,  fer- 
tile and  abounding  in  fish  and  game.  Amongst  the 
ruins  are  mounds  which  appear  to  liave  been  made 
by  the  hand  of  man,  as  well  as  man}'  other  remarka- 
ble things. 

"Before  arriving  at  them,  we  find  the  remains  of 
thick  walls,  and  a  great  eagle  in  stone,  having  on  its 
20 


30G  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


n 


N 


SI 


breast  a  tablet  a  yard  square,  and  on  it  certain  char- 
acters -which  are  not  understood.  On  arriving  at  the 
ruins,  we  find  another  stone  in  the  form  of  a  giant, 
which  the  ciders  among  the  Indians  aver  was?  the 
guardian  of  the  sanctuary.  Entering  tlie  ruins,  we  find 
a  cross  of  stone,  tliree  pahns  in  height,  witli  one  of 
the  arms  broken  off.  Further  on,  we  come  to  ruins, 
and  among  them,  stones  sculjitured  with  much  skill  ; 
also  a  great  statue,  more  than  four  yards  in  height, 
which  resembles  a  bishop  in  his  pontifical  robes  with 
a  well-wrought  miter  (on  his  head)  and  rings  on  his 
finiiers, 

"Near  this  is  a  well-built  plaza  (or  square),  witli 
steps,  such  as  writers  tell  us  are  in  the  Coliseum  at 
Rome.  In  some  places  there  are  eighty  steps,  in  part 
at  least,  of  fine  stone,  finished  and  laid  with  much 
skill. 

"In  this  square  are  six  great  statues,  three  repre- 
senting men,  covered  with  mosaic  work,  and  with 
garters  round  their  legs,  their  Aveapons  covered  with 
ornaments ;  and  the  other  two  of  women,  with  long 
robes  and  head-dress  in  the  Roman  style.  The  re- 
maining statue  is  of  a  bishop,  who  appears  to  hold  in 
his  hand  a  box  or  small  coffer.  Tluy  seem  to  have  been 
idols,  for  in  front  of  each  of  them  is  a  large  stone, 
with  a  small  basin  and  a  channel  cut  in  it,  Avhere 
they  executed  the  victim  and  blood  flowed  off.  We 
found,  also,  small  altars  used  for  burning  incense. 
In  the  center  of  the  square  is  a  largo  basin  of  stone 
which  appears  to  have  been  used  for  baptism,  and  in 
which,  also,  sacrifices  may  have  been  made  in  com- 
mon. After  passing  this  square,  we  ascend  by  a 
great  number  of  steps  to  a  high  place,  which  ap})(>ars 


Chichen-Itza,  Tikal  and  Copan. 


307 


11  char- 

at  tlie 
i  giant, 
t-as  the 
wt'  find 

one  of 
)  ruins, 
li  skill ; 
height , 
)es  -with 
1  on  his 

e) ,  will  I 
seum  at 
,  in  part 
th  much 

ee  repre- 
nd  with 
ed  -with 
ith  long 
The  ro- 
hold  in 
wo  been 
re  stone, 
it,  whore 
olf.     We 
incense, 
of  stone 
,  and  in 
in  com- 
nd  by   a 
appears 


to  have  been  devoted  to  mitotes  and  other  cere- 
monies ;  it  seems  to  have  been  constructed  with  the 
greatest  care,  for  through  the  whole  of  it  there  can 
still  be  found  stone  excellently  worked.  On  one  side 
of  this  structure  is  a  tower  or  terrace,  very  high,  and 
overhanging  the  river  which  flows  at  its  base. 

"Here  a  large  piece  of  the  wall  has  fallen,  exposing 
the  entrance  to  two  caves  or  passages  extending  under 
the  structure,  very  long  and  narrow  and  well  built. 
I  was  not  able  to  discover  for  what  they  served  or  why 
they  were  constructed.  There  is  a  grand  stairway 
descending  by  a  great  number  of  steps  to  the  river. 
Besides  these  things,  there  are  many  others  which 
prove  that  here  was  formerly  the  seat  of  a  great  power 
and  a  great  population,  civilized  and  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  the  arts,  as  is  shown  in  the  various  figures 
and  building. 

"I  endeavored  with  all  possible  care  to  ascertain 
from  the  Indians,  through  the  traditions  derived  from 
the  ancients,  what  people  lived  here,  or  what  they 
knew  or  had  heard  from  their  ancestors  concerning 
them.  But  they  had  no  books  relating  to  their  an- 
tiquities, nor  do  I  believe  that  in  all  this  district  there 
is  more  than  one,  which  I  possess.  They  say  that  in 
ancient  times  there  came  from  Yucatan  a  great  lord, 
who  built  these  edifices,,  but  that  at  the  end  of  some 
years  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  leaving  them 
entirely  deserted. 

"And  this  is  what  appears  most  likely,  for  tradition 
says  tlie  people  of  Yucatan  in  time  past  conquered  the 
provinces  of  Uyajal,  Lacandon,  Vorapaz,  Chiquimula 
and  Copan,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  Apay  language, 
which  is  spoken  here,  is  current  and  understood  in 


308  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

Yucatan  and   the    aforesaid   i)rovinces.      It    appears, 
also,  tliat  the  design  of  these  edifices  is  like  that  of 


:.-^ 


c 

c 
o 

c 

to 

a 
"5 


S 


s 
c 
C 


o 


those  -which  the  Spaniards  first  discover(>d  in  Yucatan 
and  Tabasco,  -vvhero  there  -were  figures  of  bishops  and 


.  :» 


-4 


S--V"'. 

c 

Wm, 

et 

IK!- 

■      P. 

O 

mg 

U 

Jt' 

to 

ymn^ 

a 

■ 

£35^'' 

'3 

b 

_r^ 

f4 

o 

'#9' 

s 

^' 

"q. 

T3 

C 

C 

u 

cr- 

t-^ 

o 

r-« 

sb 

Jt^ 

tb 

Yucatan 
lops  and 


Chichoi-Itza,  Tikal  and  Copan. 


309 


armed  rnon  and  crosses.  And  as  such  things  are 
found  uowliero  except  in  the  afor'^said  phices,  it  may 
well  bo  believed  that  the  Ijuilders  of  all  were  of  the 
same  nation." 

The  chief  interest,  of  arcliaeologists  in  these  ruins 
has  always  attached  to  the  sculptured  monoliths  scat- 
tered amid  the  crumbling  structures,  aome  fallen,  but 
most  still  standing  as  silent  watchers  of  the  scene  of 
former  glory  in  which  they  played,  perhaps, an  impor- 
tant part.  These,  however,  are  exceeded  in  impor- 
tance as  archaeological  remains  by  the  other  monu- 
ments, A  ground  plan  of  the  main  group  of  works 
is  shown  in  Fig.  107.  The  whole  of  this  area  is  ele- 
vated, the  larger  inner  courts  or  spaces  being  on  the 
first  general  level.  On  this  as  a  base  arise  tlie  various 
pyramids  .and  terraces  shown  in  the  figure,  most  or 
all  of  which  W(>re  crowned  with  buildings,  now  but 
heaps  of  ruins  or  fa'len  away  down  the  slopes.  The 
section  (Fig.  108)  shows  the  elevation  of  this  assem- 


Fig.  108.     Vertical  section,    main  group,  Copan. 

blage   of   pyramids    and    terraces.     There    are    other 
groups  of  less  extent  not  included  in  the  plan. 

Although  but  small  portions  of  walls  have  been  dis- 
covered, sufficient  examples  of  ornamentation  have 
been  found  to  show  that  art  had  reached  here  as  ad- 
vanced stage  as  at  any  other  point  in  Central  America. 
Among  those  discovered,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned as  indicating  the  type :  The  highly  orna- 
mented moncdiths  showing  human  forms  flanked  by 


310  Study  of  Xorth  American  Archaeology. 


hieroglypiiic  inscriptions  have  become  well  known 
through  Stephens's  work.  An  inner  step  is  men- 
tioned which  has  carved  on  it  a  number  of  human 
figures  seated  cross-legged  and  cov(M'ed  with  elaborate 
breast-plates  ant'  other  ornaments.  A  carved  orna- 
ment, made  up  of  several  stones  let  into  the  wall, 
rises  from  this  step  on  each  side  of  the  doorway  and 
reaches  the  top  of  the  wall.  This  appears  to  be  the 
conventionalized  form  of  the  serpent  head,  which  is 
repeated  in  other  parts  of  the  group.  Above  this 
ornament,  and  extending  several  feet  each  side  of  the 
doorway,  runs  an  elaborate  cornice,  ornamented  with 
seated  human  figures  and  hieroglyphs  carved  in 
medium  relief.  Many  of  the  steps  bear  inscriptions  ; 
one  is  ornamented  with  a  row  of  teeth,  others  with 
human  figures.  In  one  place  the  space  between 
flights  is  covered  with  sculptures,  among  which  are 
rows  of  death's  heads.  One  of  the  altars  which 
stand  before  the  monolitlis  is  a  great  carved  turtle. 
At  points  human  and  grotesque  heads  are  bi:ilt  into 
the  wall ;  elsewhere  are  seen  human  figures  seated  on 
huge  skulls,  and  what  Mr.  Maudslay,  for  want  of  a 
more  definite  name,  terms  serpent  men. 

The  interior  of  the  mounds  and  terraces  is  chiefly 
rubble,  similar  to  that  found  in  the  Yucatec  struct- 
ures, but,  seemingly  for  the  purpose  of  giving  addi- 
tional strength,  they  have  here  interior  supporting 
walls  buttressed  by  the  mass  of  the  slopes,  which  are 
faced  with  cut  stones. 

It  is  evident,  even  from  the  very  brief  notice  given 
here,  that  these  ruins  mark  one  of  the  most  important 
centers  of  population  in  Central  America,  a  place 
where  native  art  had  reached,  perhaps,  its  most  ad- 


1 


Chichcn-Jlza,  Tikal  and  Copaii. 


311 


known 
is  raen- 
'  human 
■laborate 
ed  orna- 
he  wall, 
way  and 

0  be  the 
which  is 
ove  this 
le  of  the 

1  ted  with 
irved  in 
riptions  ; 
lers  with 

between 
rhich  are 
rs  which 
?d  turtle. 
Didlt  into 
seated  on 
vrant  of  a 


vanced  stage  in  North  America.  The  absence  in  tlie 
figures  and  decorations  of  armed  Avarriors  or  war-like 
scenes  indicates  a  condition  of  ])eacc,  but  this  fact 
does  not  pr  ,-e,  as  Mr.  Maudslay  thinks,  that  aban- 
donment of  this  and  other  cities  found  in  ruins  at  tlie 
coming  of  the  Spaniards  was  not  in  conse(|uence  of 
war  among  tlie  tribes.  That  the  people  were  "in  a 
state  of  decadence,  and  that  +hoy  had  almost  ceased 
to  be  builders,"  as  he  contends,  is  probably  true,  but 
this  condition  was  most  likely  brought  about  by  op- 
pression of  rulers  and  intertribal  strife. 

Passing  into  Nicaragua,  the  objects  of  chief  interest 
to  the  archaeologist, which  have  been  discovered,  are 
rudely  carved  monoliths  representing  human  and  ani- 
mal forms  combined,  the  animal,  usually  alligator-like 
in  form,  holding  the  head  of  the  human  figure  in  its 
great  jaws.  But  the  description  of  these  and  numer- 
ous other  interesting  remains  of  this  region  must  be 
omitted,  as  our  allotted  space  will  not  admit  of  further 
additions  to  this  branch  of  our  work. 


;s  chiefly 
ec  struct- 
ing  addi- 
upporting 
^vhich  are 


tice  given 

important 

.,   a   place 

most  ad- 


312 


atudy  of  North  American  Archuivloyy. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


MUiRATIOXS    OK    TUK    MKXICAX   AM)    CKNTRAL  AMERICAN 

r 

TRII'.KS. 

The  discussion  of  the  prehistoric  movements  of  the 
Mexican  .and  Central  American  tribes  is  introduced  at 
this  point  because  of  the  necessary  and  frequent  ref- 
erence to  the  conclusion  on  this  subject  in  discussing 
the  origin  and  growth  of  the  native  so-called  civiliza- 
tion. In  fact,  the  conclusion  reached  in  regard  to  the 
oi'igin  and  development  of  this  advanced  culture,  and 
in  regard  to  other  questions  relating  to  the  past  his- 
tory of  the  tribes  of  this  section,  will  depend  to  a  very 
large  degree  upon  the  opinion  formed  respecting  the 
prehistoric  movements  of  these  tribes. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  movements 
of  population  in  that  part  of  the  Pacific  division  north 
of  Mexico,  whicli  were  found  to  be  in  most  cases 
southward.  The  conclusion  reached  as  to  the  exist- 
enco  of  two  great,  distinct  culture  groups,  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific,  implies  that  the  general  or  more  exten- 
sive movements  on  the  western  side  were  parallel 
with  its  mountain  ranges — that  is,  north  or  south — 
and  not  to  or  from  the  east.  It  is  clear  that  the 
course  of  migration,  so  far  as  influenced  by  the  phys- 
ical features,  was  north  or  south. 

Whatever  be  the  theory  of  the  original  introduction 
of  population  into  the  continent,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  its  spread  over  it  was  through  growth  in  nura- 


VIKRICAN 


ts  of  the 
duced  at 
Lient  rcf- 
Lscussing 
[  civiliza- 
,rd  to  the 
ture,  and 
past  his- 
to  a  very 
cting  the 

ovements 
ion  north 
ost  cases 
the  exist- 
Atlantic 
)re  exten- 
parallel 
south — 
that  the 
the  phys- 

iroduction 
conceded 
in  num- 


Mvxican  and  Central  American  Tribes. 


313 


bers,  expansion  and  migration.  Althougli  it  is  quite 
probable  there  was  a  greater  degree  of  permanency 
among  the  American  aborigines  than  has  been  gen- 
erally supposed,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  disti'ibution 
of  population  could  have  taken  place  only  through 
migration,  tliough  this  was  a  slow  process  and  may 
have  been  merely  the  gradtial  extension  of  the  grow- 
ing and  swelling  mass.*  However,  the  wide  separa- 
tion of  tlio  members  of  some  of  the  stocks  indicate 
extensive  movements  in  the  past.  Migration  is  there- 
fore a  necessary  factor  in  the  problem,  and  it  must  be 
assumed  that  every  group  of  population,  every  stock 
and  tribe,  has  come  to  its  historic  seat  from  some  other 
point.  Not  that  all  such  movements  were  necessarily 
by  stocks  or  tribes,  as  tliere  were  doubtless  ntimerous 
centers  of  development  in  some  of  which  the  original 
germs  may  have  been  but  feeble  bands,  or  a  few  families 
which  pushed  their  way  in  advance  of  the  tribe  or  clan 
and  wandered  into  other  sections.  Sir  Jolin  Lubbock  re- 
marks that  "It  is  too  often  supposed  that  the  world  was 
peopled  by  a  series  of  migrations.  Btit  migrations,  prop- 
erly so  called,  are  compatible  only  with  a  comparatively 
high  state  of  organization.  Moreover,  it  has  been  ob- 
served that  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  various 
races  of  ma'  curiously  coincides  with  that  of  other 
races  of  animals,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he 
originally  crept  over  the  earth's  surface  little  by  little, 
year  by  year — just,  for  instance,  as  the  weeds  of  Eu- 
rope are  now  gradually  but  surely  creeping  over  the 
siu'face  of  Australia."     However,  as  the  only  reason 


*  For  an  explanation  of  this  and  other  similar  expressions  see  the 
closing  chapter. 


314  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


for  presenting  tlieso  tlioughts  is  conceded — to  wit, 
that  migration  in  some  form  is  a  necessary  factor  in 
the  problem — we  may  proceed  on  this  admitted  basis 
to  a  discussion  of  the  probable  course  of  migration  in 
the  southern  portion  of  the  division. 

The  fact  already  noticed,  that  the  data  bearing 
upon  the  question  indicate  that  the  general  move- 
ments north  of  Mexico  were  southward,  leads  to  the 
inference  that  the  general  trend  in  Mexico  was  in  the 
same  direction,  which  conclusion  is  justified  unless 
some  valid  reason  can  be  offered  for  believing  that 
the  order  was  reversed  in  this  southern  region.  It 
must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the  theory  of  a  re- 
verse movement  in  this  region  has  been  advanced  by 
several  authors.  Hubert  Bancroft  emphasizes  this 
opinion  in  his  "Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States," 
as  follows  : 

"First,  as  already  stated,  the  Maya  and  Nahua 
nations  have  been  within  traditionally  historic  times 
practically  distinct,  although  coming  constantly  in 
contact.  Second,  this  fact  is  directlj'  opposed  to  the 
once  accepted  theory  of  a  civilized  people,  coming 
from  the  far  north,  gradually  moving  southward  with 
frequent  halts,  constantly  increasing  in  power  and 
culture  until  the  highest  point  of  civilization  was 
reached  in  Chiapas,  Honduras,  and  Yucatan,  or  as 
many  believed,  in  South  America,  Third,  the  theory 
alluded  to  is  rendered  altogether  untenable  by  the 
want  of  ruins  in  California  and  the  great  north-west ; 
by  the  utter  want  of  resemblance  between  New  Mexi- 
can and  Mexican  monuments ;  by  the  failure  to  dis- 
cover either  Aztec  or  Maya  dialects  in  the  north  ;  and 
finally  the  strong  contrasts  between  the  Nahuas  and 


Mexican  and  Central  Anurican  Tribes. 


315 


-to  wit, 
■actor  ill 
ed  basis 
•ation  ill 

bearing 
il  move- 
s  to  the 
IS  in  the 
d  unless 
ing  that 
jion.     It 

of  a  re- 
mced  by 
Lzes    this 

States," 

1   Nahua 
ric  times 
:antly  in 
d  to  the 
coming 
ard  with 
>wer  and 
tion  was 
m,  or  as 
le  theory 
e  by  the 
rth-west ; 
ew  Mexi- 
•e  to  dis- 
rth  ;  and 
luas  and 


Mavns,  both  iii  hmguage  and  in  monuments  of  an- 
tiquity.  Fourth,  the  monuments  of  the  .south  are  not, 
only  different  froui  l)ut  much  more  ancient  than  those 
of  Anahuac,  and  can  not  possibly  have  been  built  by 
the  Toltecs  after  their  migration  from  Anahuac  in  the 
eleventh  century,  even  if  such  a  migration  took  place. 
Fifth,  these  monuments,  like  tliose  of  the  north,  were 
built  by  ihe  ancestors  of  the  people  found  in  posses- 
sion of  the  country  at  the  Con(|uest,  and  not  by  an 
extinct  race  or  in  remote  antiquity.  Sixth,  the  cities 
of  Palenque,  Ococingo  and  Copan,  at  least,  were  un- 
occupied when  tlie  Spaniards  camo,  the  natives  of  the 
neighboring  region  knew  Jiothing  of  their  origin,  even 
if  they  were  aware  of  their  existence,  and  no  notice 
whatever  of  the  existence  of  such  cities  appears  in  the 
annals  of  tlie  surrounding  civilized  nations  during  the 
eight  or  nine  centuries  preceding  the  Conquest ;  that 
is,  the  nation  that  built  Palenque  was  not  one  of  those 
found  by  Europeans  in  the  country,  but  its  greatness 
had  practically  departed  before  the  rise  of  the  Quiche, 
Cakchiquel  and  Yucatan  powers.  Seventh,  the  many 
resemblances  that  have  been  noted  l)etween  Nahua  and 
Maya  beliefs,  institutions,  arts  and  relics,  may  be 
consistently  accounted  for  by  the  theory  that  at  some 
period  long  preceding  the  sixth  century,  the  two 
peoples  w^M-e  practically  one  so  far  as  their  institutions 
were  concerned,  although  they  are  of  themselves  not 
sufficient  to  prove  the  theory.  Eighth,  the  oldest  civili- 
zation in  America  which  has  left  any  traces  for  our 
consideration,  whatever  may  have  been  its  prehistoric 
origin,  was  that  in  the  Usuraacinta  region  represented 
by  the  Palenque  group  of  ruins." 

Til  at  several  of  the  statements  made  in  this  quota- 


316 


Stndy  of  North  Atticricati  Archaeology 


u 


tion  aro  incorrect  catul  others  arc  not  snstained  by 
subsequent  investigations  will  appear  from  the  data 
presented  in  tliis  work.  J.  D.  Baldwin  expresses 
substantially  the  same  opinion  in  his  "Ancient 
America:"  it  was  also  held  by  J.  W.  Foster,  S(|uiei 
and  some  other  authors.  On  the  other  hand  the  pre- 
vailing opinion  among  scholars  of  the  present  day,  so 
far  as  published,  appears  to  be  that  the  Nahuatl  group 
originated  in,  or  at  least  came  from  someplace  north  of 
the  known  localities  of  the  tribes  composing  the  family. 
In  confirmation  of  the  latter  opinion,  the  following  con- 
siilerations  aro  offered  in  addition  to  the  incidental 
notes  bearing  on  the  subject  in  preceding  chapters. 

If  Buschmann  be  correct  in  uniting  the  Ute  or 
Shoshone  group  of  dialects  with  and  making  them  a 
part  of  the  Nahuatl  or  Mexican  stock,  named  by  Dr. 
Brinton  the  "Uto-Aztecan  Stock,"  we  have,  in  the 
spread  of  this  extensive  family,  what  would  seem  to 
be  incontrovertible  evidence  of  the  tendency  in  this 
western  section  to  southern  movements.  Members  of 
this  family  are  scattered  from  the  vicinity  of  Columbia 
river  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama :  and  so  far  as  any 
evidence  has  been  found  in  regard  to  the  movements 
of  the  tribes,  it  indicates  they  were  southward. 
Offshoots  from  the  Aztec  group  are  found  southward 
in  Guatemala,  Nicaragua  and  the  borders  of  the  Isth- 
mus :  and  the  movement  of  the  Shoshones,  so  far  as 
known,  has  been  in  the  same  general  direction.  The 
Comanches,  the  most  south-eastern  Shoshonean  branch, 
and  the  only  one  which  has  come  down  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  have  a  distinct  tradition  that  some  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty  or  forty  winters  ago  they  lived  as  one 
people  witli  the  Shoshones  somewhere  to  the  north  of 


Mexican  ami  Central  American  Triben. 


31' 


led  by 
\v  data 
presses 
\iu'ii>nt 

the  p re- 
day,  so 
;1  group 
north  of 
family, 
ingcoii- 
cidental 
>tei's. 

Ute  or 
;  them  a 
d  by  Dr. 
,  ill  the 
seem  to 
in  this 
Imbers  of 
olumbia 
|r  as  any 
ivements 
[ithward. 
uthward 
|the  Isth- 
o  tar  as 
11.     The 
|i  branch, 
le  Rocky 
Itwo  hun- 
d  as  one 
north  of 


tlic  head\vat(>rH  of  th(>  Arkansas  river.  Dr.  Cfibbs  is 
inclined  from  his  investigations  to  the  belief  that  this 
group  lias  moved  south  and  west,  and  suggests  that 
they  came  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains by  wny  of  the  nortliern  i)asses,  in  which  ho  is 
probably  correct,  as  the  indications,  the  closer  they 
are  studied,  seem  to  point  to  the  great  region  west  of 
Hudson's  Hay  as  tlie  point  of  dispersion  from  which  two 
streams  issued.  Parted  liy  the  desert  plains  to  the 
south,  one  turneil  south-eastward  and  poured  into  the 
Atlantic  division,  the  other  coursing  south  for  a  dis- 
tance along  the  east  l)ase  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
turned  westward,  and  crossing  over  the  passes  flowed 
southward  along  the  intermontanc  valleys. 

Mr.  Gatschet  remarks  (Appendix  to  Vol.  VII,  U.  S. 
Geog.  Surv.  100th  Meridian),  when  speaking  of  the 
relation  of  the  Shoshone  and  Aztec  groups:  "From 
all  that,  it  would  be,  nevertheless,  preposterous  to  con- 
clude that  the  Aztec  civilization  came  from  the  north  ; 
but  "we  gain  the  evidence  that  the  originators  of  the 
national  Aztec  legend,  whi^h  professes  this  people  to 
have  issued  from  seven  caves  in  the  north,  were  cogni- 
zant of  the  affinity  of  their  nation  with  some  tribes 
living  north  of  Anahuac."  It  is  true  that  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  from  the  relationship  of  the  northern 
tribes  with  those  of  the  south,  that  the  civilization  of 
the  latter  came  from  the  north,  or  that  the  movement 
was  southward,  as  the  inception  of  this  advanced  cul- 
ture which,  in  accordance  with  popular  usage,  we  speak 
of  as  "  civilization,"'  may  have  been  due  to  some  cause 
or  impetus  which  did  not  exist  in  the  northern  section. 
There  is,  however,  in  the  distribution  of  this  civiliza- 
tion, in  respect  to  the  widely  scattered  members  of  the 


:n.s 


Stuily  uf  North  American  Airhaculogy. 


j^i'cut  fiimilv,  !i  stroiij^  c'liul  apparently  coiiclusivo  ar^ju- 
nuMitiu  favoi'of  tlio  tlu>oryof  a  j^cncral  southern  inovo- 
nu'iit.  As  the  nuMub(>rs  south  of  Atiahuac  .share,  to  a 
great  degree,  this  civilization,  in  its  most  advaiu'inl 
form,  whiUi  tiiose  north  of  Mexico  do  not,  itwouhl  seem 
that  tlie  only  explanation  of  this  fact  is  that  the  move- 
ment was  from  the  north  toward  tho  south. 

The  uniform  tradition  of  all  tho  tribes  of  this  stock 
in  Soiiora  and  Sinaloa,  so  far  as  they  wiro  obtained 
by  tho  early  missionaries,  was,  according  to  Father 
Perez  do  Ribas,  who  made  a  careful  collection  of  the 
legends,  to  the  effect  that  their  ancestors  had  migrated 
from  localities  further  to  the  north.  The  conclusion 
reached  ])y  Mr.  Bandelicr,  who  visited  that  section 
and  investigated  the  subject  somewhat  carefully,  was 
in  conformity  witii  this  tradition.  It  is  also  well 
known,  as  mentioned  in  the  quotation  from  Prescott's 
work,  that  tho  Mexican  or  Nahuatl  tradition  in  regard 
to  their  former  home  is,  that  their  ancestors  came 
from  some  locality  in  the  north  or  north-west,  agreeing 
thei'ein  with  the  linguistic  evidence.  The  general 
consensus  of  opinion  among  scholars  of  tho  present 
day,  so  far  as  published,  is  in  conformity  with  this  tradi- 
tion, and  may  be  accepted  as  probably  tho  correct  view. 
The  discussion  may  therefore  be  limited  to  the  migra- 
tions of  the  other  stocks  of  this  section,  especially  those 
of  the  Mayas,  in  regard  to  which  there  still  appears  to 
be  some  dilference  of  opinion,  though  their  northern 
origin  is  generally  con  :^ded. 

The  Zapotecs  and  Mixtecs,  closely  affiliated  tribes, 
whose  territory  is  embraced  chiefly  in  the  state  of 
Oaxaca,  must  be  classed  among  the  earliest  inhabitants 
of  the  southern  half  of  Mexico.     It  is  not  improbable 


3fr.cican  njid  Gcntrnl  Ainrricdn  Trihrs. 


:Jli) 


0  argu- 
i  move- 
re,  to  a 
vaiu'ed 

1(1  Sl'ClU 

0  inove- 

14  stock 

ibtaiiied 

Fat  1mm- 

1  of  th(> 
iiigrateil 
uclusion 
,  section 
illy,  was 
ilso  well 

rescott's 
11  regard 
»r9  came 
agreeing 
general 
present 
lis  tradi- 
■cct  view . 
le  migra- 
dly  those 
)pears  to 
northern 

d  tribes, 
state  of 
labitants 
iprobable 


that  the  oldest  evidences  of  Mexiciin  civilization  an' 
to  be  found  here.  Their  early  histoi'v,  however,  is 
almost  a  i)lank,  as  thev  have  neither  records  nor  reli- 
abl(^  traditions  which  refer  to  their  origin,  their  mi- 
grations or  lirst  settlement  in  this  region.  Charney 
says  they  believed  themselves  to  be  autochthones,  that 
they  are  ignorant  of  their  origin,  and  have  preserved 
no  record  of  the  time  when  th(>y  established  them- 
selves in  the  country.  Torciuemada  ("Monarchia") 
mentions  asiorywhich  i-elates  that  they  were  refug(>es 
from  Cholida.  Notwithstanding  the  radical  dill'er- 
ences  in  the  languages  of  the  two  peoples,  most  of 
the  old  writers  connect  them  with  the  Nahuatl  stock. 
It  is  stated  by  some  authorities  that  they  formerly  in- 
liabited  the  region  of  Puebla,  together  with  the 
Olmecs  and  Xicalancas.  Sahagun  says  they  were  or 
claimed  to  bo  of  Toltec  descent.  It  is  even  av(>rred 
that  Mitla  was  founded  by  the  disciph^s  of  Quetzalcoatl. 
The  Mixtecs,  according  to  some  writers,  derived  their 
name  from  Mixtecatl,  one  of  the  seven  headers  who 
tradition  says  started  out  from  Chicomoztoc,  "the 
seven  caves"  in  the  far  north. 

Notwithstanding  this  imcertainty  in  regard  to  these 
tribes,  there  are  some  grounds  for  assuming  that 
they  came  from  the  north,  as  all  the  other  tribes  of 
the  western  part  of  Mexico.  First,  the  fact  that  such 
was  the  general  course  of  the  migration  of  the  tribes 
of  this  section  would,  in  the  absence  of  any  evidence 
on  the  point,  lead  to  this  conclusion  ;  second,  the  evi- 
dence of  long  contact  with  the  Mexicans  adds  support 
to  this  belief ;  and  third,  as  shown  in  preceding  and 
following  chapters,  there  is  monumental  evidence 
justifying  the  belief  that  they  were  for  a  time  located 


320 


Stadi/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


as   far   north    as    Zacatecas,  and    none   indicating    a 
southern  origin. 

The  small  tribes  known  as  the  Zoques  and  the 
Mixes  or  Mijes,  -wedged  in  between  the  Zapotecs  and 
tribes  of  Chiapas,  are  supposed  by  some  authorities 
to  have  been  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  Oaxacan 
region,  and  their  dim  traditions  point  southward, 
especially  to  southern  Chiapas,  as  the  place  )f  their 
former  home,  irom  whence  they  were  driven  by  the 
Chapanecs.  The  origin  of  the  Chapanecs  is  variously 
given. 

According  to  one  tradition,  they  came  to  Chiapas  from 
Nicaragua,  and,  having  driven  out  the  Zoques,  occu- 
pied the  country.  The  generally  received  opinion,  how- 
ever, is  that  hold  by  Orozco  y  Berra,  Garcia,  and 
other  writers,  which  assumes,  as  the  more  authentic 
tradition,  that  which  says,  they  moved  down  from  a 
more  northern  region,  following  the  Pacific  cocast  until 
they  came  to  Soconusco,  where  they  divided,  one  part 
entering  the  mountains  of  Chiapas,  the  other  part 
going  on  southward  to  Nicaragua,  where  they  have 
been  found  under  the  name  of  Mangucs,  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Managua.  The  various  tribes  of  the 
Nahuatl  or  Mexican  stock  found  in  Guatemala,  Nica- 
ragua, and  other  parts  of  Central  America,  have,  ac- 
cording to  their  traditions  so  far  as  given,  and  as 
is  now  generally  conceded,  migrated  from  some 
region  as  far  north  at  least  as  central  Mexico.  It 
would  seem,  therefore,  from  the  evidence,  that  the 
tribes  and  stocks  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  un- 
less the  members  of  the  Mayan  stock  form  an  excep- 
tion, migrated  in  prehistoric  times  from  more  northern 
localities  than  those  they  were  found  occupying  at  the 


iting   a 

nd  the 
L>C9  and 
horities 
)axacan 
thward, 

)f  their 

by  the 
ariously 

pas  from 
es,  occu- 
ion,ho\v- 
•cia,  and 
luthentic 
1  from  a 
)ast  until 
one  part 
ler  part 
liey  have 
long  the 
es  of  the 
hi,  Nica- 
lave,  ac- 
and  as 
Ijm    some 
xico.     It 
that  the 
erica,  un- 
an  excep- 
northern 
ing  at  the 


Mcxicayi  and  Central  American  Tribes. 


321 


coming  of  the  Spaniards.  We  turn,  tlioreforo,  to  the 
history  and  traditions  of  this  stock. 

Positive  evidence  of  minor  movements  and  pre- 
historic shiftings  among  the  tribes  of  i]ii»  family  is 
found  in  their  geographic  distribution  at  the  time  of 
discovery,  a  number  being  scattered  over  Guatemala, 
others  in  Chiapas,  on  the  Rio  Lacandon,  in  the  pe- 
ninsula of  Yucataii,  and  on  Panuco  river,  north  of 
Vera  Cruz.  Nevertheless,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Huastecan  offshoot  on  the  Rio  Panuco,  they  form 
a  somewhat  geographically  compact  body  as  com- 
pared with  the  scattered  members  of  the  Nahuatl 
stock.  The  rugged  range  of  mountains  which  sepa- 
rates the  eastern  and  western  groups  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  an  effective  barrier  to  prehistoric  migra- 
tions. 

As  the  characteristics  of  the  languages  of  a  stock  af- 
fords, as  we  have  seen,  great  assistance  in  tracing 
the  movements,  and  hence  to  a  certain  extent  the 
history  of  the  tribes  of  a  stock,  we  call  attention 
here  to  the  classification  of  the  languages  of  the 
Mayan  family  so  far  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
refer  to  them.  Omitting  some  of  minor  importance, 
the  following  are  perhaps  all  the  tribes  of  the  family 
we  shall  ha.'e  occasion  to  refer  to.  Their  respective 
localities  are  also  given  : 


Maya  group. 


21 


Huastecas,  on  Rio  Pauuco,  nortli  of  Vera  Cruz. 
Mayas  (proper)  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan. 
Tzentals,  in  southern  Tabasco  and  eastern  Chiapas. 
Tzotzils  in  Chiapas,  near  the  Tzentals. 
Lacandous,  on  the  upper  Usumacinta. 


322  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


Mam-Quiche   group. 


Mams,  in  extreme  western  Guatemala. 
Quiches,  in  Guatemala,  immediately  east  of 

the  Mams. 
Cakchiquels,    in    Guatemala,    immediately 

south-east  of  the  Quiches. 
Pokonchi,  in  central   (Guatemala,  adjoining 

the  Quiches  on  the  north. 
Tzutuhils,  a  little  tribe  wedged  in  between 

the  Quiches  and  Cakchiquels. 
Pokomams,  in  southern  Guatemala,  directly 

east  of  the  Cakchiquels. 


Otto  StoU,  one  of  the  latest  and  most  reliable  au- 
tliorities  on  the  ethnology  of  this  family,  divides  it 
linguistically  into  three  chief  branches :  the  Huaste- 
can,  which  is  placed  at  the  head  as  the  oldest  dialect, 
constitutes  the  first ;  the  Maya  group,  the  second 
branch,  standing  next  in  age  iv.id  relationship  to 
Huasteca ;  the  Mam-Quiche  group,  the  members  of 
which  are  located  in  Guatemala,  constituting  the  third 
branch. 

It  must  be  remembered  also  that  it  was  among  the 
people  of  the  Mayan  stock  pre-Columbian  culture 
in  America  reached  its  most  advanced  position  ;  and 
that,  in  studying  the  movements  of  tlie  various  tribes 
and  their  final  settlement  in  their  historic  seats,  we 
are  in  truth  studying  their  history  and  the  history  of 
the  monuments  of  that  culture  which  remain  for  the 
examination  of  explorers. 

The  history  of  the  Mayas  and  Mexicans  has  been 
so  overloaded  with  tradition,  idle  tales,  inventions  of 
imagination  by  the  old  authors,  and  by  the  embellish- 
ments and  theories  of  modern  authorities,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  pick  one's  way  through  the  maze.  It  is 
only  within  the  last  few  years  that  scholars  have  un- 


Mexican  (tml  Ciiitral  Anwrlcaa  Tribes. 


323 


ila. 

y  east  of 

oediately 

adjoining 

between 

a,  directly 

able  au- 
ivicles  it 
Huaste- 
t  dialect, 
3  second 
nship  to 
mbers  of 
the  third 

mong  the 

culture 

ion ;  and 

3US  tribes 

seats,  we 

listory  of 

u  for  the 

has  been 
entions  of 
smbellish- 
that  it  is 
ze.  It  i» 
have  un- 


dertaken a  critical  study  of  the  various  problems  re- 
lating thereto.  Our  attempt  at  present  will  be  lim- 
ited to  a  brief  examination  of  the  movements  of  the 
branches  as  arranged  by  Stoll,  and  some  sttggestions 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  civilization  of  this  people. 

The  earliest  tradition  of  tlie  Mayas  proper,  of  Yu- 
catan, in  regard  to  their  origin,  recorded  by  the 
Spanish  atithors,  is  that  given  by  Lizana.  He  says 
that  in  their  ancient  language  they  name  tlie  east  in 
another  manner  from  what  they  do  to-day.  At  the 
present  they  call  the  east  Llkin,  whicli  is  the  same  as  to 
say  the  place  from  which  the  stin  rises  upon  us.  And 
the  west  they  name  Chlkhi,  which  is  the  same  as  the 
falling  or  setting  of  the  sun,  or  the  place  where  it 
hides  with  regard  to  us.  "But  in  antiquity  they  said 
of  the  east  Genial,  'little  descent,'  and  of  the  west 
Nohenial,  'great  descent,'  of  the  one  side  (east),  few 
people,  of  the  other  side  (west),  the  great  multitude.'' 
The  liistorian  Cogolludo,  on  the  other  hand,  while 
giving  the  same  tradition,  concludes  after  some  con- 
tradictions, that  the  colony  from  the  east  must  have 
been  much  more  numerous  and  more  ancient  than  the 
other.  Landa  and  Ilerrera  record  a  tradition  that  the 
oldest  inhabitants  came  from  the  east,  the  sea  being 
divided  to  afford  them  a  passage.  Some  of  their 
culture  heroes  como  from  one  direction  and  some 
from  the  other.  Itzamna,  the  chief  hero  or  deity  of 
the  Mayas  of  central  Yticatan,  comes  from  the  east, 
dwells  long  in  the  land  and  founds  Izamal.  The 
people  of  Chichen-Itza  had  also  traditions  of  culture 
heroes  :  one  regarding  three  brothers  who  came  from 
the  west  and  gathered  together  the  people  and  ruled 
over  them  :  another,  possibly  connected  witli  tlio  pre- 


•-••S-WM^.V., 


;2-i 


Stadij  itf  North  American  Arcliaeoloyij. 


ceding,  tells  of  another  and  great(M'  hero,  Ckikulean, 
who  came  also  from  the  wost  and  ruled  over  the 
Itzaes  and  founded  Mayapan.  Whether  the  latter 
canio  thither  with  tlio  people,  or  subsequently,  is  left 
uncertain  by  the  tradition.  Lastly,  we  have  the  myth 
of  Votan,  the  culture  hero  of  the  Tzental  group  {.Iready 
referred  to. 

To  what  extent  tlieso  traditions  are  to  bo  resolved 
into  light  and  sun  myths  is  a  question  we  sliall  not 
undertake  to  decide  at  this  point;  that  tliey  had  in 
the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  some  relation  to  their 
origin  and  the  origin  of  their  civilization  can  not  be 
denied.  Fancourt,  in  his  "History  of  Yucatan,"  and 
Dr.  Brinton,  in  the  introduction  to  "The  Maya  Chroni- 
cles," reject,  no  doubt  correctly,  the  idea  of  an  eastern 
influx,  and  ascribe  the  population  to  immigrants  from 
the  west  and  north-west.  As  this  eastern  descent  has 
connected  with  it  some  miraculous  features,  and  there 
are  no  facts  to  support  or  give  color  to  it,  it  is  perhaps 
wise  to  reject  it  in  toto,  as  has  been  done  by  most  of 
the  recent  authorities.  But  this  does  not  dispose  of 
the  Itzamna  and  Votan  myths. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  physical  features  of  the 
country  that  entrance  into  the  peninsula,  if  not  by 
the  sea,  must  have  been  from  the  south  or  west,  and 
the  most  reliable  traditions  are  consistent  with  this 
fact.  Herrera,  who  copies  Landa,  says  :  "Whilst  the 
Cocomes  lived  in  this  regular  manner,  there  came 
from  the  southward  and  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of 
Lecando,  great  numbers  of  people,  looked  upon  for 
certain  to  have  been  of  the  province  of  Chiapa,  who 
traveled  forty  years  about  the  desert  of  Yucat- n,  and 
at  length  arrived  at  the  mountains  that  are  almost 


Mexican  and  Central  American  Trihex 


:'.25 


ukulc-an, 
over  the 
lie  lilt  tor 
[y,  is  It' ft 
tlie  myth 
ip  {.Iready 

0  rosolvotl 

shall  not 
ley  had  in 
n  to  their 
;an  not  bo 
itan,"  and 
tya  Chroni- 

an  eastern 
rrants  from 
lescent  has 
i,  and  there 

is  perhaps^ 

3V  most  of 
dispose  of 

ires  of   the 
if  not  by 
jr  west,  and 
it  with  this 
'Whilst  the 
there  came 
lountains  of 
ed  upon  for 
Chiapa,  who 
ucat'ui,  and 
are  almost 


opposite  to  the  city  of  Mayapan,  where  tliey  settled 
and  raised  good  structures,  and  the  people  of  Maya- 
pan,  some  years  after,  liking  their  way  of  living,  sent 
to  invite  them  to  build  houses  for  their  lords  in  the 
city.  The  Tutulxiu,  so  the  strangers  were  cal'od, 
accepting  their  courtesy,  came  into  the  city  and  built, 
and  their  people  spread  about  the  country,  submitting 
themselves  to  tlie  laws  and  customs  of  Mayapan  in 
such  peaceable  manner  tliat  tliey  had  no  sort  of 
weapons,  killing  their  game  with  gins  and  traps." 
This,  which  appears  to  relat(?  to  a  real  occurrence, 
refers  beyond  question  to  the  incursion  mentioned  in 
the  Native  Maya  Chronicles,  whicli  refer  to  tliis  mi- 
gi'ation  as  'The  departure  made  from  the  land,  from 
the  house  Nonoual,  where  Avere  the  four  Tutulxiu 
from  Zuiva  at  the  west :  they  come  from  the  land 
Tulapan,  having  formed  a  league." 

It  is  apparent  from  Herrera's  statement  and  from 
the  chronicles  that  the  country  was  already  inhabited 
when  the  Tutulxiu  arrived. 

A  comparison  of  all  the  data  bearing  on  the  subject, 
which  include  not  only  the  traditions,  but  itlso  the 
linguistic  and  historical  evidence,  *he  architectural 
forms,  hieroglj^phs,  etc.,  lead  to  the  following  con- 
clusion :  That  the  Tutulxiu,  who  were  still  represented 
at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  came  from  the  region 
of  the  lower  or  middle  Usumacinta,  that  is  to  say, 
some  place  in  Chiapas  or  Tabasco  :  that  previous  to 
tins  migration,  the  Itzaes,  who,  as  v(M'itable  history 
informs  us,  at  a  comparatively  recent  date,  moved 
south  to  Lake  Peten,  where  they  were  found  by  Cor- 
tez,  had,  at  a  much  earlier  dntu  iuigr.itod  in  a  body, 
or  sent  a  large  colony  northward  inlo  tiie  peninsula, 


320  Stiuhf  of  North  American  Archaeoloffy. 


where  tlioy  fouiKUnl  tlio  city  of  ('liichen-Itza.  Tliis 
coincides  in  the  main,  it  is  believed,  with  tiie  opinion 
of  most  students  of  ihe  present  day  who  have  devoted 
attention  to  the  subjcH't. 

It  seems  possible  to  trace  the  Mayan  siock  back 
with  reasonable  certainty  to  central  Mexico.  It  is  prob- 
able that  somewhere  in  that  region  tho  family  groiij) 
was  divided  into  two  branches,  one  of  wiiich,  with 
the  Huastecas  in  the  lead,  went  toward  the  east ;  all 
of  the  branch,  however,  except  the  Huastecas,  turn- 
ing southward,  entered  ilie  valley  of  the  Usumacinta. 
One  offshoot  of  this  braiicli  moved  on  south-eastward 
to  the  Peten  region,  and  sent  a  colony  northward 
which  founded  Chichen-ltza.  Others  from  the  seats 
in  the  Usumacinta  valley  pushed  tlieir  way  northward 
into  the  peninsula.  Tlu^  weste'"n  branch,  which  in- 
cluded the  Pokonchi,  Quiche  and  Mam  groups,  moved 
on  at  a  later  daf^  toward  the  south-(\ast,  stopping  at 
the  "second  Tulan,"  which  the  author  locates,  with- 
out any  attempt  at  exact  definiteness,  in  the  region  of 
northern  Chiapas.  This  was  the  final  point  of  dis- 
persion of  the  western  branch,  from  wl'ich  the  tril)es 
proceeded  to  their  historic  seats  in  Guatemala. 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that,  although  some 
of  them  were  migrations  in  the  true  sense  of  that  term, 
others  wore  more  lik(>ly  the  slow  and  gradual  results 
of  growth  and  expansion.  It  seems  quite  probable 
that  before  the  western  branch  had  left  the  region  of 
the  second  Tulan,  that  is  to  say,  the  country  in  and 
about  northern  Chiapas,  the  older  colonies  located  on 
the  Usumacinta  had  grown  in  numbers,  and  gradu- 
ally pushed  their  settlements  into  the  peninsula.  It 
is  also  possible  that  the  eastern  coast,  north  of  Laguna 


za. 


This 


le  opinion 
e  devoted 

itock  back 
It  is  prob- 
lily  group 
lich,  with 
i  east ;  all 
'cas,  turn- 
umacinta. 
i-eastward 
lorthward 
1  tlie  seats 
northward 
which  in- 
ps,  moved 
topping  at 
ates,  with- 
3  region  of 
>int  of  dis- 
tho  tribes 
ila. 

ougli  some 
that  term, 
nal  results 
e  probable 
3  region  of 
I  try  in  and 
located  on 
and  gradu- 
insula.  It 
I  of  Laguna 


Mexican  and  Central  American  Tribes.  327 

de  Tei  luinos,  was  reached  and  occupied  before  Chichen- 
Itza  was  founded.  That  the  people  who  founded 
Cluchen-Itza  passed  from  the  region  of  Lorillard  City 
or  the  upiier  Usumacinta  to  the  Peten  region,  and 
thence  northward,  appears  to  be  proven  by  the  identity 
of  hieroglyphic  types  heretofore  noted,  and  similari- 
ties in  other  respects. 


H28 


Study  of  North  American  Archacoloyy 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


MKJRATIOXS    OK    CKRTAIN    MAVAN    TKII5KS. 


The  Quiclio  group,  ■wliicli  includes  the  ("akchiquels 
and  Tzutuhils,  located  in  (luateniala,  all  claim  to 
have  come  from  some  distant  land  which  was  the 
home  of  their  ancestors  ;  and  related  in  their  tradi- 
tions their  early  wanderings  Avhich  finally  brought 
them  to  their  historic  seats.  In  the  Popol  Vuh  or 
Sacred  Book  of  the  Quiches,  a  native  work,  which  is 
largely  mythical,  it  is  stated  that  tlu^y  "came  from 
beyond  the  sea."  After  the  purely  mythological  por- 
tion there  follows  something  like  tradition  in  which  it 
is  said  the  people  multiplied  greatly  iii  a  region  called 
the  East,  and  migrated  in  search  of  gods  to  Tulan- 
Zuiva  (the  "seven  caves"),  where  four  gods  were  as- 
signed to  the  four  leaders,  namely  (the  gods)  :  Tohil, 
Avilix,  Hacavitz  and  Nicahtagah.  Here  their  lan- 
guage was  changed  or  divided,  and  the  division  into 
separate  nations  was  established.  SulTering  from 
cold,  and  endeavors  to  obtaiti  fire  while  they  were 
awaiting  the  sun,  are  the  points  most  dwelt  upon 
during  their  stay  at  Tulan.  In  connection  with  these 
trials  they  were  visited  by  an  envoy  from  Xibalba, 
which  is  generally  sujjposed  to  have  been  located  in 
the  region  of  Palenque,  if  not  purely  mythical.  They 
abandoned  or  w^ere  driven  from  Tulan,  and  'ifter  a 
tedious  journey,  .'ncluding  apparently  a  crossing  of  an 


Migrations  of  Cciiain  Mayan  Tribes. 


329 


laiiu    to 
\vas  the 
ir  tradi- 
brougbt 
Viih  or 
which  is 
me  from 
[Tical  por- 
which  it 
on  called 
Ito  Tulan- 
were  as- 
I)  :  Tohil, 
heir  lan- 
siou  into 
11  cr    from 
\xvy  were 
elt   upon 
nth  these 
Xibalba, 
ocated  in 
.     They 
,d  -'vfter  a 
Ising  of  an 


arm  of  tlie  sea,  or  some  water  to  which  this  term  was 
applied,  rcrichcd  Mt.  Ilacavitz. 

Tlie  tradition  of  the  Cakchiquels  given  in  their 
"Annals,"'  also  a  native  work,  is  substantially  the 
same  as  regards  the  points  mentioned.  Their  ances- 
tors are  supposed  to  have  come  from  the  other  side  of 
the  s(>a,  from  the  land  of  Tulan,  where  they  were 
brought  forth.  There  were  four  clans,  "Four  men 
came  from  Tulan  ;  at  the  sunrise  is  one  Tulan,  and 
one  is  at  Xibalbay,  and  one  is  at  the  sunset ;  and  we 
come  fi'om  this  one  at  the  sunset ;  and  one  is  where 
God  is.  Therefore,  there  are  four  Tulans,  they  say, 
oh,  our  sons  ;  from  the  setting  sun  we  came,  from 
Tulan,  from  beyond  the  sea." 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  these  traditions  are 
largely  mixed  with  myth,  and  that  it  is  a  very  difficidt 
task  to  pick  out  the  real  from  the  mythological.  Nev- 
ertheless, there  is  a  certain  general  trend  in  all  which 
implies  unity  of  origin  ;  there  are  also  certain  terms 
which  indicate  the  latitude,  the  character  of  the  cli- 
mate, the  country,  etc.  Although  the  incidents  related 
may  be  largely  mythical,  they  apply  only  to  one  re- 
gion of  North  America,  and  sliow  the  country  in  which 
they  are  supposed  to  have  occurred. 

The  four  Tulans  referred  to  in  the  extract  from  the 
Annals  of  the  Cakchiquels  heretofore  given,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  first  part  jf  the  tradition  which  relates 
to  the  origin  of  the  people,  and  may  on  this  account 
be  considered  chiefly  mythical.  There  are,  however, 
repeated  mentions  of  another  Tulan  to  which  the}/  came 
after  crossing  the  sea,  which  appears  to  be  considered 
by  the  tradition  the  great  and  important  point  in  their 


330 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


misjjrations.  Numerous  extracts  might  be  given  show- 
iiiif  this,  hut  the  following  will  suffice  : 

"They  say  that  tlie  seven  tribes  arrived  first  at 
Tulan,  and  the  warriors  followed,  having  taken  up 
the  tributes  of  all  the  seven  tribes  when  the  gate  of 
Tulan  was  opened."  "The  Tzutuhils  were  the  first 
of  the  seven  tribes  who  finished  coming  to  Tulan,  and 
then  we  the  warriors  came,  as  they  say."  Here  they 
paid  tribute  of  jade,  silver,  feather  stuffs,  of  "articles 
painted,  articles  sculptured,  astrological  calendars, 
reckoning  calendars,  flute  songs,  songs  hated  of  you 
because  the  seven  tribes  paid  this  tribute."  Again  it 
is  said  :  "First  came  the  Quiche  men  ;  they  acquitted 
themselves  of  their  tribute  in  the  first  month  ;  then 
arrived  their  companions  ono  after  another,  by  their 
families,  their  clans,  their  tribes,  their  divisions  in 
sequence,  and  the  warriors,  until  the  whole  of  them 
had  finished  arriving  in  Tulan." 

When  it  is  added  that  numerous  incidents  are  men- 
tioned as  occurring  at  and  during  the  departure  from 
Tulan,  and  that  the  Quiche  tradition,  as  given  in  the 
Popol  Vuh  or  Sacred  Book,  confirms  the  statement, 
that  this  was  also  an  important  point  in  their  migra- 
tions, there  would  appear  to  ba  no  good  reason  for 
considering  it  other  than  some  real  locality  which  had 
an  important  place  in  the  history  of  these  tribes.  It 
is  more  than  probable  that  events  which  properly  be- 
long to  widely  different  dates  are  crowded  too  closely 
together,  but  this  does  not  necessarily  invalidate  the 
traditions. 

In  both  traditions,  the  statements  relating  to  this 
Tulan,  which  was,  as  shown  thereby,  the  point  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  tribes,  indicate  a  locality  correspond- 


Mifiratiuns  of  Ctrtaia  Mayan  Trlhes, 


331 


I  show- 
first  at 
ken  up 
gate  of 
he  first 
an,  and 
>re  thoy 
articles 
iendars, 
of  you 
/Vgain  it 
cquittecl 
h;  then 
by  their 
sions  in 
of  them 

ire  men- 
ire  from 
m  in  tlie 
itement, 
r  migra- 
ason  for 
lich  had 
ibes.     It 
perly  be- 
closely 
date  the 

to  this 
it  of  the 
•respond- 


ing in  features  and  characteristics  to  the  Central 
American  region.  Mention  of  the  tapir  limits  tlie 
territory  in  Nortli  Aincrica  to  that  n^gioii  south  of 
central  Mexico.  Some  of  tlie  animals  alluded  to  in 
the  Quiche  legend  as  belonging  to  this  region  are 
found  only  in  this  southern  section  Among  the  arti- 
cles given  as  tribute  at  Tulan  were  green  feathers 
W'  rked  and  sewed  together,  calendars  and  cacao. 
As  these  references  relate  to  the  time  they  were  at 
Tulan,  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  it  was 
located,  at  least  traditionally,  if  not  really,  in  this 
southern  section. 

As  the  Mams  occupy  the  extreme  western  portion 
of  Guatemala  and  the  Quiches  and  Cakcliiquels, 
according  to  the  traditions,  passed  them  in  going 
to  their  seats  in  the  south  central  part  of  Guate- 
mala, they  must  necessarily  have  come  from  some 
place  as  far  north-west  as  Chiapas.  This  agrees 
with  the  statement  by  Orozco  y  Berra  that  they  in- 
habited Soconusco  from  remote  times.  We  thus  es- 
tablish the  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  western 
branch,  as  it  is  impossible,  considering  the  geograi:)h- 
ical  positions  of  the  tribes,  to  explain  a  northward 
movement  in  harmony  with  the  statements  of  the  tra- 
dition. As  the  only  probable  and  acceptable  theory 
in  regard  to  the  movements  of  the  peninsular  Mayas 
is  that  they  came  from  the  west  or  south-west,  we 
thus  obtain  two  lines  pointing  toward  the  same  gen- 
eral locality,  southern  or  central  Mexico ;  either 
Oaxaca,  Tabasco,  Puebla,  or  the  region  about  the 
t'ity  of  Mexico.  This  view  is  strengthened  by  some 
additional  data,  which  are  well  worth  considering  in 
this  connection. 

It  is  not  impossible  that  the  key  to  the  puzzle  is  to 


3;}2  Stiuli/  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

1)0  found  in  the  relations  with  and  prehistory  of  the 
Totonacas,  a  well-known  tribe  which  Cortez  first  en- 
'.'oiintered  on  landinj^  in  Mexico,  and  from  whoso  ter- 
ritory he  began  his  celebrated  march  to  the  imperial 
city,  yet  withal  a  mysterious  people,  whose  ethnic 
position  among  the  aboriginal  nations  of  this  region 
has  not,  as  yet,  been  definitely  settled.  At  this  time 
they  occupied  the  country  known  as  Totonicapan,  in- 
cluded in  the  present  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  adjoin- 
ing the  territory  of  tho  Huastecas.  According  to 
their  traditions,  which  appear  to  have  some  basis 
of  truth,  they  had  resided  there  for  eight  hundred 
years  at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  and  had  been 
an  independent  people  up  to  a  few  generations  pre- 
ceding this  coming,  when  they  were  subjugated  by 
tho  Mexicans.  They  had  migrated,  according  to 
their  traditions,  from  the  west  and  north-west,  ap))a- 
rently  from  tho  interior,  in  the  region  about  the  City 
of  Mexico.  They  claimed  to  have  migrated  from  the 
valley  of  Mexico,  and  to  have  lived  long  near  the 
banks  of  Lake  Tezcuco,  where  they  built  the  pyra- 
mids of  Teotihuacan.  Torquemada,  who  is  the  chief 
authority  for  their  traditions,  says  :  "Of  their  origin, 
they  say  that  they  set  out  from  the  place  called 
Chicomoztoc,  or  'seven  caves,'  together  with  the  Xal- 
panecs ;  and  that  they  were  twenty  divisions,  or 
families,  as  many  of  the  one  as  of  the  other ;  and 
although  thus  divided  into  families,  they  were  all  of 
one  language  and  of  the  same  customs.  They  say 
that  they  started  from  that  place,  leaving  the  Chichi- 
mecs  still  shut  up  there ;  and  they  directed  their 
journey  toward  this  part  of  Mexico,  and  having  ar- 
rived at  the  plains  on    the  lake,  they  halted  at  the 


r  of  the 
irst  en- 
OHO  tcr- 
mpcrial 
)  ethnic 
i  region 
liis  time 
ipan,  in- 
.  ad join - 
rding   to 
ne   basis 
hundred 
i\ad  been 
ions  prc- 
gated  by 
irding    to 
pst,  appa- 
the  City 
from  the 
near  the 
the  pyva- 
the  chief 
ir  origin, 
Lce   called 
the  Xal- 
isions,    or 
her;   and 
ere  all  of 
They  say 
le  Chichi- 
cted   their 
laving  ar- 
ted  at  the 


Mi(irntionn  of  Certnin  Mayan  Ti'ihcH. 

place  Avhere  Teorihnaean  now  is ;  and  they  affirtn 
they  built  there  two  tuniples,  which  were  dedicated  to 
the  sun  and  numn.  Here  they  reinain(>d  for  some 
time,  but  either  not  contented  with  the  place,  or  with 
a  desire  to  pass  to  other  places,  they  went  to  Atenami- 
tic,  where  Zacatlan  now  stands."  From  there  they 
drifted  further  eastward,  settling  on  the  coast,  where 
they  wert!  found  by  the  Sjianiards. 

That  they  were  a  primitive — so-called  pre-Toltec,  at 
least  pre-A/,tec — nation  in  Anahuac,  is  g(Mi(M*ally  con- 
ceded. That  they  were  a  cultured  people  is  also  ad- 
mittetl.  That  the  t(>mples  and  pyramids  of  Teotihua- 
caii  were  built  by  this  people  may  be  doubtful ;  nev- 
ertheless, as  shown  above,  they  do  not  appear  to  be 
Aztecan. 

This  tribe  seems  to  have  been  in  close  relation  with 
the  Huastecas,  nor  is  there  any  valid  reason  why  we 
may  not  infer  that  the  two  peoples  were  together  in 
the  migrations  mentioned.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  some  facts  which  favor  this  assumption.  The 
position  of  the  Totonac  language  in  relation  to  the 
Nahuatl  and  Maya  is  yet  an  unsettled  question  among 
linguists.  By  some  it  has  been  joined  to  Nahuatl,  by 
others  to  the  Maya,  but  by  the  latest  authorities  it  is 
considered  as  independent.  Sahagun  says  they 
claimed  relationship  with  the  Huastecas,  which  of 
course  would  bring  them  into  the  Mayan  family.  That 
their  language  contains  numerous  -words  from  Mava 
roots,  and  presents  other  resemblances,  is  known. 
But  at  the  same  time  it  is  claimed,  on  the  other  side, 
that  there  are  fully  as  great  resemblances  to  the  Na- 
liuatl.  Charencey  says  the  Totonac  language  presents 
striking  analogies  with  the  Mam-Huastec. 


334  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


I 


The  tradition  recorded  by  Sahagun,  so  often  quoted 
by  writers,  which  refers  to  the  hmding  of  Mexican 
tribes  and  the  Huastecas  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  Panuco 
river,  is  valuable  chiefly,  and  in  fact  only,  as  being 
confirmatory  of  the  tradition  given  in  the  earlier  and 
more  correct  form.  That  ])art,  however,  which  refers 
to  immigrants  disembarking  from  vessels,  and  imply- 
ing a  passage  across  the  sea,  must  be  rejected  as  an 
addition  and  not  a  part  of  the  native  legend.  Mr. 
Bandolier,  who  is  familiar  with  the  early  Spanish  au- 
thorities, says  that  neither  of  the  two  earliest  sources 
from  which  this  tradition  is  drawn  speaks  positively 
as  to  a  "landing,"  but  on  the  contrary  only  of  the 
Xicalancas  reaching  the  coast  from  the  interior.  This 
appears,  also,  to  agree  with  the  tradition  of  the  Huas- 
tecas as  given  by  Marcelo  Alejandro  in  his  "Cartilla 
Huasteca,"  which  says  that  they  had  their  origin  in 
the  regions  of  the  north,  establishing  their  first  loca- 
tion where  Altamira  of  to-day  is  located,  in  the  state 
of  Tamaulipas.  According  to  Gomara,  "Xicalancatl 
walked  more  earth,  arrived  at  the  sea  of  the  north, 
and  on  the  coast  made  many  towns  ;  but  the  two  prin- 
cipal ones  lie  called  by  tlie  same  name.  One  Xical- 
anco  is  in  the  province  of  Maxcalcingo,  which  is  near 
Vera  Cruz,  and  the  other  Xicalanco  is  near  Tabasco." 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  idea  that  the  tradition 
referred  to  emigrants  coming  over  the  sea  was  an  er- 
roneous interpretation  given  to  it  by  Sahagun,  simply 
from  the  fact  that  it  spoke  of  people  arriving  at  the 
mouth  of  Panuco  river.  All  the  evidence  is  entirely 
against  the  theory  that  any  of  the  Mayan  or  Mexican 
tribes  came  from  Florii!    or  the  West  Indies. 

Bringing  togetlier  all  these  points,  and  other  indi- 


Migrations  of  Certain  Mayan  Tribes. 


335 


quoted 
VIexican 

Panuco 
LS  being 
■lier  and 
!h  refers 
I  iraply- 
d  as  an 
id.  Mr. 
,nish  au- 

sources 
ositively 
y  of  the 
)r.    This 
he  Huas- 
'Cartilla 
origin  in 
irst  loca- 
the  state 
calancatl 
le  north, 
two  prin- 
le  Xical- 

1  is  near 
abasco." 

tradition 
IS  an  er- 

1,  simply 

ig  at  the 

entirely 

Mexican 

ther  indi- 


cations which  can  not  be  given  in  detail  here,  and 
studying  them  carefully,  their  bearing  seems  to  point 
to  some  locality  in  western  or  central  Mexico  as  the 
place  of  development  of  the  Mayan  tribes,  and  to  ren- 
der it  probable  that  they  are  mixed  up  with  the  Toltec 
tradition. 

If  we  adopt  the  opinion  that  there  was  first  a  divi- 
sion into  two  branches,  one  from  whicli  the  southern 
and  western  tribes  descended,  the  other  iliat  from 
which  the  northern  and  eastern  tribes  ^ye^e  developed, 
we  may  be  justified  in  the  following  conclusions : 
This  first  division  having  taken  place  in  western  or 
central  Mexico,  the  Mam  branch  moved  on  south  to- 
ward Chiapas.  Having  increased  in  numbers  and 
clans  as  time  passed,  through  some  political  convul- 
sion, or  being  harassed  by  onemies,  the  tribes,  which 
by  this  time  had  been  at  least  in  part  formed,  moved 
on  toward  the  south-east.  It  is  to  the  latter  movement 
that  the  Quiche  and  Cakchiquel  traditions  chiefly  re- 
late. By  this  time,  and  perhaps  previous  thereto,  the 
Nahautl  tribes  had  appeared  upon  the  scene,  and  pos- 
si!)ly  exerted  the  pressure  which  forced  the  Mayan 
tribes  southward,  though  there  were  other  peoples 
both  on  the  east  and  west. 

It  appears  more  probable,  however,  judging  by  the 
linguistic  evidence,  geographical  position  and  differ- 
ence in  culture,  that  the  Huastecas  must  have  broken 
away  from  the  main  body  before  any  of  the  other 
divisions  took  place.  Or  else,  if  they  led  off"  one 
branch  going  eastward,  they  must  have  parted  from 
it  before  the  other  tribes  were  differentiated.  How 
far  north,  or  at  what  point  this  occurred,  it  is,  of 
course,  impossible  for  us  to  determine  with  certainty ; 


*«**— .►..*^.«„ 


3:56 


Stiidi/  nf  North  American  Arrliaenlogy. 


that  it  must  havo  boen  nortli  or  north-west  of  the 
va  ley  of  Mexico  may  be  assumed  with  some  degree 
of  probability.  It  is  also  quite  likely  that  at  this 
time  they  (the  Iluastecas)  joined,  or  were  joined  by 
the  Totonacas,  with  whom  they  gradually  shifted  to 
the  gulf  shore.  The  reason  for  this  supposition  is 
that,  so  far  as  known,  the  Iluastecas  had  not  adopted 
the  peculiar  calendar  system  which  prevailed  among 
all  the  other  tribes  of  the  stock,  as  also  among  the 
Mexicans,  Zapotecs  and  most  of  the  Central  American 
nations.  It  is  somewhat:  singular  that  this  calendar 
appears  to  have  been  unknown  to  or  not  adopted  by 
the  Huastecas,  though  it  seems  to  have  been  in  use 
among  the  Totonacas.  This,  however,  we  presume 
is  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  latter  had  been 
brought  under  the  direct  control  and  supervision  of 
tlie  Mexicans,  wht)  caus'^d  its  adoption  by  them.  If 
it  be  true,  as  now  supposed  (though  the  evidence  is 
not  entirely  satisfactory) ,  that  this  calendar  was  not 
in  use  among  the  Huastecas,  this  Avould  seem  to 
furnish  conclusive  proof  that  they  had  broken  away 
from  the  other  portion  of  the  Mayan  stock  before  it 
came  into  use. 

Taking  all  the  facts  and  indications  into  considera- 
tion, we  are  inclin(»d  therefore  to  the  view  *hat  tlie 
development  of  the  Mam-Quiche  branch  took  place 
in  Oaxaca,  or  Chiapas.  The  chief  point  of  dispersion 
was  most  likely  in  the  mountainous  section  of  the 
latter  district,  though  the  formation  of  the  tribes 
had  taken  place,  at  least  in  part,  before  this  point  was 
reached.  It  is  also  possible,  and  in  fact  prolable, 
that  the  branch  which  settled  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
Usumacinta  valley  broke  away,  as  above  indicated, 


MiijratiouH  of  Certain  Mai/an  Tribes. 


•,m 


,  of  t'le 

deg  !•('*' 

at  this 
ined  by 
lifted  to 
sition  is 

adopted 
I  among 
long  the 
iraerican 
calendar 
opted  by 
■n  in  use 

presume 
had  been 
•vision  of 
them.  If 
ridence  is 
r  was  not 
seem   to 

,cen  away 
before  it 

considera- 
+hat  the 

ook  place 
ispersion 

on  of  the 

the  tribes 
point  was 
probable, 
alf  of  the 
indicated, 


before  reacliing  tliis  point  of  final  dispersion,  whicli 
seems  to  refer  chiefly  to  the  southern  tribes. 

The  Totonacas  claimed,  as  shown  above,  that  they 
were  the  builders  of  the  temples  at  Teotihuacan.  If 
wo  suppose  the  Mayas,  or  the  eastern  branch  of  tlie 
stock,  to  hav'o  been  associated  with  them  or  in  this 
r(>gion  at  this  time,  the  tradition  appears  to  accouiit 
for  some  facts  which  are  otherwise  dillicult  to  explain. 
"While  the  name  Teotihuacan,"  says  Mi-,  liandelier, 
"is  Nahuatl,  the  confused  traditions  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  ruins  ascribe  them  to  an  entirely  differ- 
ent tribe." 

It  appears  that  this  author,  who  rejects  the  view 
tliat  the  Toltecs  were  a  distinct  nation  or  tribe  known 
by  that  name,  is  inclined  to  attribute  the  works  at 
Teotihuacan  to  tlie  Mayas,  in  which  it  is  probable  he 
is  correct.  Some  of  tlie  types  of  art  found  in  this 
section  and  at  Tulan  present  some  marked  resemblances 
to  certain  types  discovered  in  Yucatan. 

The  result  of  our  incjuiry  therefore  is  that  the  Mayan 
stock  moved  south-eastward  from  some  region  as  far 
north-west  as  central  Mexico,  probably  preceded  by 
the  Zapotecs  and  some  of  the  other  older  stocks. 
That  they  were  somewliat  closely  followed  by  and 
came  into  contact  with  the  Nahuatl  stock  before  leav- 
ing the  Tulan,  which  we  have  supposed  was  on  the 
boundary  of  Chiapas,  is  evident  from  the  facts  and 
traditions  mentioned.  That  the  Mayas  were  the  first 
])eopie  to  occupy  Yucatan,  and  that  they  had  already 
made  considerable  advance  in  civilization,  although 
nor  established  with  positive  certainty,  is  inferred 
18 


— >-  >i  w'JllViji  •^;t 


338  Stuilij  of  Nortk  American  Archaeolog j . 

from  the  results  of  Mr.  Henry  C.  Mercer's  examinutioa 
of  the  hill  caves  of  tliis  section  mentioned  hereafter. 
Although  tlie  Mayas  differ  -widely  in  language  and 
to  some  extent  in  culture  from  tlie  Nahuatl  stock,  yet 
it  is  possible  that  tlie  belief  of  the  Aztecs  that  they 
were  at  some  remote  joeriod  connected,  tliough  proba- 
l)ly  only  by  association,  is  correct.  That  the  two  peo- 
ples moved  south  v'ard  substantially  along  the  same 
route  appears  to  be  the  most  reasonable  conclusion 
we  can  reach  from  the  data  so  far  obtained.  The 
original  home  from  which  the  primal  germ  of  the 
great  Uto-Aztecan  stock  started  on  its  journey  south- 
ward was  most  probably  the  region  now  occupied  by 
the  Dene  or  northern  Athapascans.  Possibly  from 
the  same  original  germ,  or  from  germs  issuing  from 
the  same  hive,  were  developed  the  Mayan,  Zapotecan 
and  the  other  smaU  stocks  of  southern  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  That  slight  additions  may  have 
been  received  through  occasional  stranded  vessels  on 
the  Pacific  coast  is  possible,  but  this  was  not  sufficient 
to  leave  any  marked  effect,  unless  it  can  ])e  found  in 
some  particular  customs  or  arts. 


Origin  uf  Central  American  Civilization.         339 


limit  loa 
sroafttM'. 
xge  and 
ock,  yet 
lat  they 
li  prt)ba- 
two  peo- 
lie  samo 
nclusioii 
'd.     The 
I  of   the 
?y  south- 
npied  by 
bly  from 
ling  from 
iapotecan 
Lxico  and 
lay  have 
essels  on 
sufficient 
found  in 


chapteh  XXIII. 

THE    ORIGIN    AND    DEVELOPMENT  OF    CENTRAL  AMERICAN 

CIVILIZATION.* 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  North  Ameri- 
can archaeology  is  that  relating  to  the  origin  and  pe- 
culiarities of  Mexican  and  Central  American  civiliza- 
tion. That  it  was  indigenous  is  now  the  prevailing 
opinion  among  antiquaries  and  ethnologists.  While 
this  conclusion  may  be  accepted  as  beyond  any  rea- 
sonable doubt  true  in  a  general  sense,  it  is  possible 
that  in  some  of  its  features  it  may  have  felt  the  im- 
press of  extraneous  or  foreign  influence.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  treated  here  as  indigenous,  that  is  to  say,  as 
being  of  native  origin  and  growth.  This  being  ad- 
mitted, does  the  evidence  show  that  its  development 
was  entirely  within  the  geographical  limits  heretofore 
mentioned?  In  other  words,  can  we  trace  by  the 
monuments  and  traditions  the  growth  of  this  civiliza- 
tion, from  its  commencement  to  the  highest  stage  it 
reached,  wholjy  within  this  area,  or  do  we  liave  to 
look  beyond  these  limits  for  the  evidence? 

If  we  take  the  architecture  and  attempt  to  trace 
the  development  of  the  different  types  by  the  monu- 
ments which  are  found  within  the  respective  areas  of 
the  different  stocks,  we  shall  find  our  efforts  to  a  large 
degree  baffled.  Although  Yucatan  is  dotted  over 
with  ruins  of  Mayan  structures,  yet  none  of  the  many 

*  As  no  native  tribe  can  be  called  "  civilized  "  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  term,  it  is  nsed  here  merely  as  iiidicutive  of  tlie  more  advanced 
culture  of  these  nations. 


>1M«,t^(|. 


o40  Studi/  (if  A'u/'i'/t  American  Archaeology. 


explorers  who  liave  studied  them  have  pointed  out  tlio 
various  steps  of  the  huiUhM-'s  ai't  as  shown  I  v  these 
ruins.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  for  th(  very 
good  reason  tliat  there  do  not  appear  to  b(>  in.  tliese 
areas  examples  which  can  be  pointed  to  as  the  i)eiTin- 
nings  of  this  art,  the  first  rude  efforts.  Historically 
and  otherwise  we  learn  that  there  wei-o  dwellings  of 
stone  and  dwellings  of  wood,  from  the  sim])le  thatched 
hut  to  the  stately  mansion.  Possil)ly  the  temples 
may  have  been  developed  from  the  longitudinally  di- 
vided houses  described  by  Landa,  but  no  moditication 
of  these  would  have  i)roduced  the  temple-crowned 
p\'ramids.  Violet  le  Due  lias  tried  to  show  how  the 
stone  structures,  with  their  pointed  arches  and  heavy 
frieze,  are  but  stone  copies  of  wooden  buildings,  or 
that  the  one  has  been  modeled  after  the  other. 
Though  Fergusson  may  liave  traced  successfully  this 
kind  of  transition  in  the  history  of  Oriental  archi- 
tecture, it  is  evident  to  any  one  who  will  examine 
with  care  the  Frenchman's  figures,  that  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  mode  of  dividing  the  body,  there  never 
were  Mayan  structur  's  of  wood  of  the  pattern  given. 
In  Egypt,  where  tlio  beginnings  are  less  apparent 
than  in  some  other  centers  of  Eastern  civilization,  re- 
mains showing  pi'imitive  efforts  are  still  found.  Ex- 
ami>l(>s  of  the  simple,  plain  tombs  from  which,  ac- 
cording to  Rawlinson,  the  pyramids  were  ultimately 
developed,  remain  to  the  present  day ;  but,  so  far  as 
the  author  is  aware,  nothing  has  been  found  in  the 
Maya  territory  to  mark  the  commencement  of  that 
art  which  designed  and  constructed  the  temples  and 
pyramids  of  Uxmal,  Chichen-Itza  and  Kabah.  So 
far  as  architectural  skill  is  concerned,  there  is  but 
little  difference  observable  in  the  structures  of  Yuca- 


Origin  of  Central  American  Civilization.         ?A1 


out  the 

V  thc-ie 
b(  v(M'y 
ill  those 
(.  ])oo;in- 
tdvically 
lliugs  of 
thatched 

tomph^s 

inally  di- 
litication 
-crowned 
'  liow  the 
lul  heavy 
dinii;s,  or 
le    other. 
ifuUy  this 
tal  archi- 
examine 
1  the  ex- 
lero  never 
>rn  given. 

appj^i'^'"''* 
zation,  re- 

und.     Kx- 

vhich,   ac- 

ultimately 

so  far  as 

nd  in  the 

ut  of  that 

raples  and 

abah.     So 

lere  is  but 

■s  of  Yuca- 


tan and  the  adjoining  sections  attributable  to  tlio 
Mayas.  The  principal  variation  is  in  size  and  degree 
of  ornamentation;  even  the  plans,  as  shown  by  Mr. 
W.  11.  Holmes,  in  his  excellent  paper  on  "Archaeo- 
logical Studies  Among  the  Ancient  Cities  of  Mexico," 
are,  to  a  large  extent,  conventionalized.  But  the  fact 
remains  that  among  the  hundreds  of  examples  which 
exist,  there  are  none  showing  the  first  riule  efforts  of 
the  builders.  As  stated  by  Mr.  Holmes  in  the  quota- 
tion given  in  "a  previous  chapter,  while  it  is  true  that 
some  of  the  buildings  are  composite  and  show  success- 
ive accretions,  there  are  others  which  stand  as  perfect 
units  of  design.  But  he  speaks  nowhere  of  the  rude 
beginnings  found  in  that  section  from  which  they 
worked  up  to  the  more  perfect  form  ;  his  only  intima- 
tion of  progress  is  that  in  the  quotation  given  below. 
Nor  has  any  author,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aw^are,  given 
us  this  information. 

How  are  we  to  account  for  this  absence  of  earlier 
forms  except  upon  the  theory  that  when  the  tribes  en- 
tered their  historic  seats  they  had  already  become 
proficient  in  the  builder's  art?  The  tradition  of  the 
Tutul-Xiu,  as  given  by  Herrera,  indicates  that  they 
brought  this  art  with  them.  That  wood  was  used 
chiefly  for  ordinary  dwellings  is  true,  and  that  the 
Maya  architects  may  have  to  some  extent  modeled 
their  stone  structures  after  those  of  wood  may  be 
true,  but  certainly  not  to  the  extent  claimed  by  V^iolet 
le  Due  ;  nevertheless  it  seems  improbable  that  this 
skill  should  have  been  attained  without  comparatively 
rude  beginnings.  The  only  indication  that  the  art, 
in  this  type,  was  still  in  an  undeveloped  stage,  is  that 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Holmes  : 


342  Study  of  North  Amcruan  Archaeology. 


i 


•  <<  jtwTthstaiuUiig  tlip  success  of  these  Maya  masons 
in  I' ;  r^tinjf  buildings  capable  of  standing  for  hundreds 
'  v;a.s.  they  were  yet  ignorant  of  some  of  the  most 
essenti.ii  ,  •inciples  of  stone  construction,  and  are  thus 
to  be  ri'garded  as  hardly  more  than  novices  in  the  art. 
They  made  use  of  various  minor  expedients,  as  any 
cleviM'  nation  of  builders  would,  but  depended  largely 
o]\  mortar  and  inertia  to  hold  their  buildings  to- 
r^ether." 

Mr.  H?nry  C.  Mercer,  w^ho  has  explored  a  number 
of  caves  in  Yucatan  for  the  purpose  of  searching  for 
indie;  lions  of  the  early  inhabitants,  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  tlie  Mayas  were  the  first  inhabitants,  and 
that  they  had  acquired  their  civilization  before  enter- 
ing that  territory.  These  facts,  apparently  at  least, 
justify  us  in  searching  for  the  remains  of  their  pri- 
mary efforts  along  the  route  of  their  migrations. 

Although  our  information  is  meager  in  regard  to 
the  antiquities  of  northern  and  north-western  Mexico, 
yet  enougli  is  known,  as  appears  from  the  descriptions 
given,  to  state  positively,  notwithstanding  all  that  has 
been  written  and  said  to  the  contrary,  that  some  of 
the  ruins  found  in  that  section  may  have  been  the 
primitive  efforts  of  the  civilized  tribes  of  southern 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  Whatever  opinion  we 
may  hold  on  this  point,  two  things  which  have  an 
important  bearing  on  the  question  must  be  admitted  : 
Firnt,  as  has  already  been  stated,  that  in  the  central 
region,  or  Maya  sites,  there  are  no  evidences  of  the 
primitive  architectural  efforts  ;  and,  second,  that  it  is 
only  to  the  ruins  north  of  this  central  region  we  can 
look  for  these  extralimital  primitive  forms.  There  we 
do  find  what  may  possibly  be  the  remains  of  the  prim- 


Origin  of  C'cntml  American  Civilizatio)i.         3-]3 


masons 
indrods 
ho  most 
ire  thus 
the  art. 
,  as  any 
L  largely 
lings  to- 

n  umber 
hing  for 
the  con- 
mts,  and 
re  enter- 
at  least, 
their  pri- 
ons. 

regard  to 
1  Mexico, 
scriptions 
1  that  has 
t  some  of 
been  the 

southern 
pinion  we 

have  an 
admitted  : 
he  central 
ces  of  the 
,  that  it  is 
on  we  can 

There  we 
f  the  prim- 


itive types  ;  but  southward  until  we  reach  Nicaragua 
the  structures  and  inscriptions,  although  showing 
variations  and  the  introduction  of  additional  forms, 
are  too  apparently  the  outgrowths  of  what  we  may 
term  the  central  types  for  this  fact  to  b«^  overlooked 
or  disputed. 

It  is  a  somewhat  strange  fact,  if  we  'idgc  nly  by 
the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  and  mani;si  "'p^'".  ^^^  the 
Mayan  characters,  that  we  would  be  caiiof  ded  to  con- 
clude that  they  were  brought  to  comparative  perfection 
at  the  time  they  were  invented.  A  di(.  en  .0,  it  is  true, 
in  the  forms  and  ornamentation,  and,  to  a  certain  de- 
gree, an  advance  toward  a  more  perfect  type,  can  be 
traced,  but  no  examples,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware, 
of  the  first  rude  beginnings,  or  the  original  forms, 
have  been  found.  Some,  comparatively  rude,  are  found 
painted  on  pottery,  scratched  on  sliells  or  other  soft  ma- 
terial, but  these  belong  to  what  maybe  t«>rmed  demotic 
writing  and  are  not  primitive  forms.  Comparing  the 
characters  of  the  various  inscriptions  which  have  been 
discovered  and  those  found  in  the  few  remaining  pre- 
Columbian  manuscripts,  the  result  is  as  follows  :  First, 
it  is  apparent  that  the  characters  in  the  manuscripts 
have  b(>en  adopted  from  those  of  the  inscriptions.  In 
other  words,  inscriptions  preceded  the  manuscripts  ; 
hence  we  must  look  to  the  former  for  the  older  forms. 
What  appear  to  the  writer  to  be  the  oldest  forms  of  the 
glyphs  yet  discovered  are  seen  in  those  at  Palenque 
and  some  of  the  inscriptions  found  by  Charney  at 
Mcnche  (Lorillard  City),  though  others  discovered  by 
him  at  this  same  place  belong  to  the  later  and  more 
ornamental  type  discovered  in  the  Peten  region,  that 
is,  those  carved  in  wood  discovered  by  Bernoulli  at 
Tikal,  a  type   also  found  at  Copan  and  Chichen-ltza, 


344 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeolofji/. 


!) 


but  in  none  of  the  inscriptions  Jit  Palonquo.  In  all 
cases  the  same  method  of  indicating  numbers  is  fol- 
lowed, and  the  same  calendar  system  as  that  of  the 
Tzentals  and  the  Dresden  ('otlex  is  also  followed. 
These  facts  form  part  of  the  evidence  on  which  we 
base  the  conclusion  given  in  a  previous  chapter,  that 
the  Itzaes  passed  fi-om  the  region  of  the  upper  Usuma- 
cinta  eastward  to  their  seat  about  Lake  Peten. 

Another  item  found  in  this  connection  bearing  on 
the  migrations  of  some  of  the  Mayan  tribes  is  worthy 
of  notice.  During  his  studies  of  the  Palenque  in- 
scriptions, the  author  has  been  surprised  to  find 
among  the  various  glyphs  one  in  which  the  chief 
character  is  the  figure  of  a  person  lying  on  his 
back,  his  knees  drawn  up,  his  head  partially  raised 
up,  and  his  hands  placed  on  his  stomach.  A  sit- 
ting figure  with  and  without  a  head  is  found  both 
in  the  manuscripts  and  inscriptions,  but,  unless  shown 
in  some  of  tlie  inscriptions  on  the  statues  of  Co- 
pan,  the  introduction  of  full  length  figures  in  the 
glyphs  as  a  part  thereof  is  unusual.  This  unusual 
hieroglyph  is  found  twice  in  the  inscription  on  the 
tablet  of  the  cross  known  as  No.  2  ;  and  once  in  one 
of  the  inscriptions  in  the  Temple  of  the  Three  Tablets. 
If  we  turn  now  to  the  pages  of  Charney's  "Ancient 
Cities  of  the  New  World,"  where  the  two  prone 
statues  are  figured,  we  will  find,  seemingly  beyond  a 
reasonable  doubt,  to  what  our  unusual  glyph  refers. 
These  statues,  which,  according  to  Hamy  and  Char- 
ney,  denote  Tlaloc,  the  god  of  rain  and  fertility,  were 
found  at  widely  different  points,  one  at  Tlaxcala  and 
the  other  by  Dr.  Leplongeon  at  Chichen-Itza.  As  has 
been  correctly  stated  by  Dr.  Brinton,  "a  statue  of  a 


Origin  of  C'nilral  Amcr'rjin  Civilizatlun.  'AAiS 


In  all 
1  is  fol- 
,  of  th() 
)11owihI. 
Iiich  v,r 
:cr,  lliat 
Usuma- 

iring  on 
i  worthy 
nque  in- 
to   find 
;he  chief 
;   on   his 
ly  raised 
,     A  sit- 
ind  both 
ss  shown 
is  of  Co- 
3S  in  the 
unusual 
n  on  the 
;e  in  one 
3  Tablets. 
"Ancient 
v'o   prone 
beyond  a 
)h  refers, 
lid  Char- 
ity, were 
Lcala  and 
As  has 
atue  of  a 


sloopinjT  god  holding  a  vase  was  disinterred  by  Dr.  Le- 
ploMgeon  at  ('hichcn-Itza,  and  it  is  too  entirely  similar 
to  others  found  atTlaxcala  and  near  the  (Htyof  Mexico 
for  us  to  doubt  but  that  they  represented  the  same 
divinity,  and  that,  the  god  of  rains,  fertility  and  har- 
vest." Mr.  Handelicr  mentions  a  fourth  one  found  in 
the  state  of  Puebla. 

Shall  we  attribute  the  statue  found  in  Yucatan  to 
the  Mayas  and  the  others  to  the  Aztecs?  Or  slu'll  we 
ascribe  both  to  the  May;'...,  thus  assuming  that  some 
one  or  more  of  the  tribes  of  the  latter  stock,  at  some 
period  before  their  entrance  into  their  historic  seats, 
dwelt  for  a  time  in  the  vicinity  of  Tlaxcala?  If  the 
writer  be  correct  in  his  suggestion  that  the  glyphs  re- 
ferred to  represent  this  diety,  the  latter  supposition 
would  seem  to  bo  the  correct  one. 

Reasons  have  already  been  given  for  believing  that 
the  pyramids  or  temples  of  Teotihuacan  date  from  a 
period  anterior  to  the  occupation  of  this  region  by  tlie 
Aztecs,  and  hence  can  not  be  ascribed  to  them.  It 
is  true  that  indications  of  Aztec  culture,  which  has, 
to  a  certain  degree,  been  impressed  upon  them,  are 
found,  but  some,  in  fact  most,  of  the  types  differ  from 
any  thing  that  is  known  to  belong  to  this  culture,  and 
the  ruins  are  ileclared  by  the  best  authorities  to  be 
non-Aztecan.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is 
stated  by  the  early  writers  that  the  name  Tula  (Thu- 
la,  Tulan,  Tollan,  Tollam),  was  also  applied  to  this 
place,  a  name  which,  although  signifying  "place  of 
reeds,"  was  explained,  whether  correctly  or  not,  as 
meaning  "place  of  Toltecs."  It  is  apparent  from 
these  facts  that  some  of  the  works  of  this  place  are 
attributable  to  an  older  people  than  the  Aztecs,  or  a 


340 


Stiiili/  of  Xorth  Anirrican  Archaeology. 


])0()|)1(>  antedating  their  advent.  It  is  also  true,  as 
argued  by  Clianiey,  that  some  of  the  types  found  it 
Tuhi,  as  for  example,  the  ornamental  sculpturin<j;  on 
sonic  of  the  co^imns,  and  the  serpent-like  form  of 
others,  hear  a  slronj^  resemblance  to  some  of  the  types 
found  at  Chichen-Itza. 

I  After  this  chapter  had  been  written  the  writer  re- 
ceived from  Dr.  Antonio  Penafiel,  of  Mexico,  a  letter 
announcing  tlie  discovery  in  a  plowed  field  at  Tula, 
on  the  site  of  the  "Temple  of  the  Caryatides"  (that 
of  the  double  column  with  feet  shown  by  Charney)  of 
a  shell  on  which  are  engraved  hieroglyphic  characters 
supposed  to  be  of  the  Mayan  tj'pe.  An  inspection  of 
the  photographs,  which  accompany  the  letter,  prove 
this  supposition  to  be  correct  beyond  doubt.  It  is  a 
puzzling  fact,  however,  that  these  characters  bear  a 
closer  resemblance  to  the  southern  vari(>ty,  especially 
those  on  the  shell  found  in  Belize,  of  which  a  figure 
is  given  in  the  author's  paper  on  "Day  Symbols  of  the 
Maya  Year,"  in  the  Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  than  to  those  of  Pa- 
Icnque  or  Yucatan.  A  similar  type  is  seen  in  Fig.  84, 
page  140,  of  Dr.  Brinton's  "Primer  of  Mayan  Hiero- 
glyphics," which  represents  an  inscription  on  a  vase 
from  a  Quiche  tomb,  Guatemala.  The  difference  is, 
however,  due  in  part  to  th  material  on  which  the 
characters  are  inscribed  and  the  way  in  which  they 
are  written,  as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig.  78  of 
Dr.  Brinton's  "Primer,"  which  shows  an  inscription 
at  Kabah,  painted  on  stucco. 

The  discovery  of  this  inscription,  if  corroborated  by 
other  finds,  may  have  a  tendency  to  show  that  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  Mayan  tribes  did  not  take  place  until  the 


Oi'iijin  nf  Cnitrnl  Anirrican  Civillznfin)). 


•>47 


true,  as 
omul  'It 
.iriiij^  oil 
form  of 
lu'  typi's 

t'riter  rp- 
,  a  l«>tt('r 
at  Tula, 
)s"  (that 
irney)  of 
luiractors 
ection  of 
er,  prove 
It  is  a 
rs  bear  a 
["specially 

a  figtiro 
ols  of  the 
5rt  of  the 
se  of  Pa- 
1  Fig.  84, 
in  Hiero- 
on  a  vase 
srence  is, 
vhich  the 

lieh  they 
Fig.  78  of 
iscriptiou 

(orated  by 

t  the  sepa- 
\  until  the 


regit)ii  of  Tula  was  reached  in  the  migration  south- 
ward, or  that  the  Mani-C^uiche  group  followed  the 
track  of  the  oast(M'n  group  to  this  point.] 

It  is  j)roper  also  to  l)ear  in  mind  in  this  connection, 
that  the  ruins  of  Comalcalco,  as  has  b,  "n  stated,  belong 
unquestionably  to  the  type  found  at  l'alen(|ue,  and 
with  more  ])rofuso  ormunentation  at  Hxinal  and  otluM* 
])lace.s  in  the  peninsula.  As  Comalcalco  lies  in  Ta- 
basco on  tlu^  road  n(»rthward,  it  would  be  exactly  on 
the  route  of  migration  from  Mexico  or  Puel)la  to  the 
region  of  Palemiue,  by  the  eastern  or  shore  line. 

While  these  facts  are  not  sufficient  of  themselves  to 
prove  the  presenc )  of  the  Mayas  in  this  C(>ntral 
Mexican  region,  yet  when  we  take  into  cons'  deration 
the  traditions  which  have  been  mentioned  s.  owing  the 
probability  that  the  Huastecas  and  the  Totonacas  at 
one  time  occupied  this  section,  and  that  the  work.s 
both  here  and  at  Cholula  arc  certainly  pre-Aztecan, 
we  are  perhaps  justified  in  attributing  some  of  them 
to  that  branch  of  the  Mayas  which  went  off  with  the 
Huastecas  toward  the  east.  To  this  must  also  be 
added  the  fact  that  the  evidence  so  far  adduced  shows 
that  the  Mayas  must  have  come  from  some  point  as 
far  northward  as  central  Mexico.  The  indications 
also  bear  us  out  in  the  supposition  that  the  builders 
of  ,  le  temples  and  pyramids  of  Palenque  came  to 
this  locality,  partly,  at  least,  by  way  of  the  shore,  or 
Tabasco  route.  This  evidence  not  only  indicates  *hat 
the  Mayas  occupied,  for  a  time,  portions  of  the  Mexi- 
can valley,  in  acU'ance  of  the  Aztecs,  but  it  r.l»o 
serves  to  give  some  support  to  the  theory  that  the 
Toltecs  were  the  Mayas. 

At  Quemada,  in  Zacatecas,  are  the  ruins  of  temples, 


348 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


pyramids,  walled  terraces,  stairways,  etc.  There  also 
is  seen  a  row  of  stone  jiillars  running  through  a  hall, 
as  at  Mitla.  Bancroft  does  not  think  that  these  ruins 
show  any  marked  analogies  to  the  structures  either 
north  or  south,  though  ho  admits  that  the  pyramids 
are  similar  to  those  at  the  south.  However,  they 
do  sliow  that  composite  character  which  indicates 
transitional  forms  which  must  be  found  in  all  ad- 
vances from  lower  to  higher  grades.  An  intermediate 
type  between  that  of  Casas  Grandes  and  those  further 
south,  if  constructed  by  a  people  migrating  south- 
ward, not  yet  formed  into  tribes,  would,  of  course, 
(liflFer  somewhat  from  llie  types  both  north  and  south, 
and  would  in  all  probability  be,  to  a  certain  extent, 
composite  in  features. 

There  are,  however,  some  features  which  lead  to 
the  impression  that  these  works  should  be  attributed 
in  part  to  the  Zapotecs,  as  for  example,  the  rows  of 
columns  through  the  middle  of  halls,  and  tlie  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  rooms.  The  former  is  a  peculiarity 
found  elsewhere  only  in  Zapotec  ruins  and  at  Teoti- 
huacan,  and  indicates  a  different  mode  of  construction 
from  that  found  either  in  the  Nahuatl  or  Maya  archi- 
tecture. The  increase  in  the  size  of  the  rooms  is  a 
feature  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bandelier  as  he 
proceeded  southward  in  his  journey  through  north- 
western Mexico.  The  change,  according  to  this  writer, 
begins  at  Casa  Grande.  "The  rooms,"  he  remarks, 
"are  higher  and  much  more  spacious  than  in  the 
northern  ruins ;  the  doorways  are  higher  and  wider." 
Although  Cliarney's  zealousness  in  advocacy  of  the 
Toliecshas  a  tendency  to  bias  his  judgment  in  regard 
to  any  thing  which  bears  on  this  subject,  we  quote  his 


Origin  of  Central  American  Civilization.         349 


lere  also 
\  a  hall, 
!se  ruins 
!S  either 
lyramids 
er,  they 
indicates 
I  all  ad- 
rraediate 
G  further 
g  south- 
l  course, 
id  south, 
n  extent, 

1  lead  to 
ttributed 
!  rows  of 
!  increase 
culiarity 
at  Teoti- 
struction 
a  archi- 
oms  is  a 
Her  as  he 
;h  north- 
lis  writer, 
remarks, 
n   in   the 
wider." 
y  of  the 
in  regard 
quote  his 


opinion  on  the  similarity  mentioned,  as  it  shows  the 
impression  left  on  his  mind  from  a  personal  examina- 
tion of  the  ruins  in  Oaxaca.  "Las  Casas  Grandos. 
the  settlements  in  the  Sierra  Madre,  the  ruins  of  Zape, 
of  Quemada,  recalling  the  monuments  at  Mitla,  others 
in  Queretaro,  together  with  certain  features  in  the 
building  of  temples  and  altars  which  remind  one  of 
the  Mexican  manuscripts,  from  which  the  Toltec. 
Aztec  and  Yucatec  temple  was  built,  make  it  clear 
that  the  civilized  races  came  from  the  north-west."  It 
is  possible  that  the  Mayas  and  Zapotecs  were  in  close 
relation  with  one  another  during  their  migration  south- 
ward ;  or  supposing  the  latter  to  have  been  the  earlier 
emigrants,  that  the  former  learned  the  art  from  them, 
subsequently  developing  their  particular  types  in  the 
more  southern  sections.  It  may  also  be  added  that 
the  truncated  pyramid  at  Mitla  built  of  adobes,  and 
the  numerous  adobe  structures  in  the  Zapotec  region, 
are  at  least  suggestive.  The  absence  of  the  triangu- 
lar arch  is  a  marked  distinction,  though  the  flat  roof 
was  not  entirel}-  unknown  in  Yucatan. 

At  Casas  Grandes,  which  is  in  Chihuahua,  we  see 
proofs  of  the  initial  steps  of  mound  building.  In 
fact,  the  evidence  of  gradual  advance  toward  a  higher 
grade  in  the  architectural  art  is  seen  beyond  question 
as  we  advance  southward  from  Arizona  to  Quemada, 
be  our  opinion  in  regard  to  the  authors  of  tliese  works 
wliat  it  may.  We  must  confess  that,  so  far  as  we  are 
able  to  judge  from  all  that  has  been  written  in  regard 
to  the  ruins  of  the  soutli-west,  there  seems  to  be  no 
other  reason  for  denying  this  advance  in  type  than  a 
fixed  purpose  to  maintain  a  theory.  These  raised 
platforms    or   low   pyramids    filled    in   solidly    witli 


lSEt■iT^.»,aal«iE«=J..-y^.  ^  —-^ 


350  Study  of  North  American  Archaeolotj y . 

gravel,  and  the  terraces  supported  by  bordering  walls, 
may  justly  be  considered  the  beginnings  of  that  art 
v,'hich  culminated  in  the  temples,  terraces  and  pyra- 
mids of  Yucatan  and  Chiapas.  Walled  terraces,  plat- 
form mounds,  an  inner  filling  or  hearting  of  gravel, 
mortar  and  stone  fragments,  are  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  this  southern  region,  and  are  found  also  in 
Oaxaca.  It  is  true  that  in  the  southern  locality  the 
works  are  upon  a  larger  scale,  the  types  more  perfect, 
and  the  ornamentation  more  profuse  than  at  Casas 
Grandes.  It  may  also  be  said  that  the  southern  types 
are  more  specialized,  but  this  is  precisely  what  would 
be  expected  upon  the  theory  that  the  southern  forms 
were  developed  from,  and  grew  out  of,  the  northern. 
The  conclusion  which  Mr.  Bandelier,  who  has  studied 
the  regions  both  of  north-western  and  southern  Mex- 
ico, has  reached  on  this  question,  is  so  exactly  in  point 
in  this  connection  that  we  quote  it  somewhat  fully  : 

"Although  the  communal  pueblo  houses  of  the 
north  seem  to  be  different  from  the  structures  on  the 
Gila  and  at  Casas  Grandes,  they  still  show  the  same 
leading  characteristics  of  being  intended  for  abodes 
and  at  the  same  time  for  defense.  In  the  northern 
villages,  however,  both  features  are  intimately  con- 
nected ;  whereas  further  south  the  military  purpose  is 
represented  by  a  separate  edifice,  the  central  house  or 
stronghold,  of  which  Casa  Grande  is  a  good  speci- 
Uicn.  In  this  the  ancient  village  of  the  south-west 
approaches  the  ancient  settlements  of  Yucatan  and  of 
central  Mexico,  which  cor.sisted  of  at  least  three  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  edifices,  each  distinct  from  tlie  others 
in  the  purposes  to  which  it  was  destined.  It  seems, 
therefore,    that  between   the    thirty-fourth    and    the 


Origin  of  Central  American  Civilization.         351 


iiig  walls, 
t"  that  art 
and  pyra- 
aces,  plat- 
of  gravel, 
'ristic  fea- 
id  also  in 
reality  the 
re  perfect, 
I  at  Casas 
hern  types 
rliat  would 
lern  forms 
northern, 
las  studied 
liern  Mex- 
ly  in  point 
at  fully  : 
^es   of    the 
•es  on  the 
the  same 
"or  abodes 
northern 
ately  con- 
purpose  is 
il  house  or 
;ood   speci- 
south-west 
itan  and  of 
three  dif- 
tlie  others 
It  seems, 
and    the 


twenty-ninth  parallels  of  latitude  the  aboriginal  archi- 
tecture of  the  south-west  had  begi'n  to  change  in  a 
manner  that  broughc  some  of  its  elehients  that  were 
of  northern  origin  into  disuse,  and  substituted  others 
derived  from  southern  influences ;  in  other  words, 
that  there  ws  a  gradual  transformation  going  on  in 
ancient  aboriginal  architecture  in  the  direction  from 
north  to  soutii. 

"  I  have  alluded  only  to  the  most  strikin>^  examples 
of  south-western  aboriginal  architecture,  the  large 
houses.  In  regard  to  another  kind,  tlie  small  de- 
tached buildings,  it  must  be  observed  that  the  small 
house  is  probably  the  germ  from  which  the  larger 
structures  were  evolved,  and  that  the  small  houses 
also  undergo  modifications,  especially  from  north  to 
south,  in  the  si/e  of  the  rooms.  I  repeat  here  what  I 
said  in  my  preliminary  report  to  the  Institute  of  Au- 
gust 11,  1883:  'Tliere  is  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
size  of  the  rooms  in  d».>tacluHl  buildings,  in  a  direction 
from  north  to  soutli,  wliich  increase  is  most  distinctly 
marked  over  the  area  where  the  detached  house  alone 
prevails.' 

"There  art>  regions,  like  central  Sonora,  where  the 
small  house  is  the  only  architectural  type  now  re- 
maining from  ancient  times.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  squ'iiro  or  rectangular  dwellings  of  the  Opatas  of 
the  Sonora  river  confirm  the  impressions  above  re- 
corded. If  we  compare  them  with  the  dimensions  of 
the  huts  now  inhabited  by  ti'ibes  living  still  further 
south,  we  find  their  size  increases  as  we  advance  from 
a  colder  to  a  warmer  one. 

"Large  lialls  are  not  found  in  the  ruins  of  the 
north.     They  appear  to  be  almost  the   rule  at   Mitia 


352 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology . 


and  in  Yucatan  ;  and  they  are  met  with  on  tlie  Gihi, 
under  a  climate  which  is  semi-tropical. 

"Equally  noteworthy  is  the  increase  in  dimensions 
of  the  doorways  and  windows.  In  tlie  lofty  struc- 
tures of  Arizona  and  Chihuahua  there  is  considerable 
resemblance  to  tlie  doorways  of  ancient  edifices  in 
Yucatan  and  other  southern  states  of  Mexico. 

"The  outer  coating  of  the  walls  is  of  course  ditT<'r- 
ent  in  the  arid  northern  countries  froui  tfiat  in  the 
moist  regions  of  the  tropics.  Elsewhere  i  have  men- 
tioned the  plating,  with  polished  slabs,  of  the  walls 
of  Mitla,  which  was  applied,  I  suspect,  not  merely 
for  ornamental  purposes,  but  with  a  practical  object. 
Where  summer  rains  are  as  violent  as  under  the 
tropics,  a  coating  of  adobe  or  gypsum  v.-oukl  be  lui- 
able  to  resist  them  for  any  length  of  time.  In  the 
south-west  a  thi'ir  «  coat  was  sufficient ;  still  there  is 
inipro  oment  ir,  s\ic]\  coating,  from  the  northern  sec- 
tions to  the  souuiern,  shown  by  the  finish  of  the  wash 
applied  to  the  surface. 

"I  have  alluded  to  the  appearance  of  artificial 
mounds  and  artificial  platforms  or  terrac(>s  on  the 
Gila,  and  perhaps  also  in  the  Casas  Grandes  region. 
It  is  well  known  that  both  of  these  structur(\s  are 
conspicuous  in  the  ruins  of  southern  and  central  M(>x- 
ico.  The  estufa,  however,  is  a  specifically  northern 
feature,  and  therefore  disappears  as  soon  as  the  cli- 
mate becomes  more  e(]uable  and  finally  tropical." 

It  may  be  added  that,  according  to  Mr.  Bartlett, 
who  examined  the  Casas  Grandes  in  ISoO  and  illus- 
trated his  description  with  figures,  the  rooms  l)egan 
to  assume  here  almost  the  exact  form  and  arrang(^- 
ment  in  series  seen  in  some  of  the  Yucatec  structures. 


Origin  of  Central  American  Civilization.  353 


3  Gila, 

Elisions 

stnu'- 

(UM-ablo 

flees  ill 

3  diflVr- 
:  in  the 
ve  men- 
he  ^valls 
merely 
L  object. 
[!(!(> r  the 
1  lie  II n- 
In  the 
L  there  is 
lern  see- 
the wash 

artificial 
on  the 
region, 
ures  are 
•al  Mex- 
northern 
the  cli- 
•al." 
Bartlett, 
md  illus- 
ns  began 
arrange- 
ructures. 


We  also  notice  the  fact  tliat  the  aggregation,  so  to 
speak,  of  cells  as  in  the  pueblo  structun's  is  gradually 
lost  as  we  proceed  southward.  Marked  <'vi»len  f 
this  change  is  se^n  before  we  leav*-  souihorn  Arizona, 
and  at  Casas  Grandes  we  see  tlie  hwt  faint  intimat;on 
of  it,  unless  we  asf^ume  that  the  rotm  senies  in  Yuca- 
tan are  resultants. 

The  cliff-dwellings,  which  ir*  a  charatiWfrfirtie  fea- 
ture of  the  Sati  J  4anr^'<»ion  o'  ■-<>nh-f';t.'*i«»»Jirixona, 
continue  side  by  side  >»-ilh  tl*'  oiii<T  U^atamem  ».*•  we 
proceed  south  init  Mcxjcd,  And  are  not  loH>taDfil  after 
we  have  passed  Ca^as  Grande!^. 

That  the  series  of  types  is  unbroken  from  tiie  reg»ya 
of  the  pueblos  and  cliff-dwellers  of  Arizona  to  Ci 
Grandes  is  unquestionable.  True,  there  arc  variati 
in  the  features  and  characteristics,  but  that  they  are  rf**- 
rived  from  the  same  original  type  i-  a  fair  and  re:»»' 
onable  presumption.  It  may  also  \x'  asserted  with  i, 
considerable  degree  of  confidence  that  southward 
from  Quemada  the  series  is  continuous  to  G'  lemaia. 
It  is  admitted  that  there  is  a  greater  van.tt  ,  jn  this 
series  than  in  the  northern  one.  This,  j  ►wever,  ac- 
cords precisely  with  the  facts  as  known  and  what 
might  have  been  predicated  upon  thei^e  fjnerts.  In 
other  words,  the  body  of  emigrants,  so  t  Afwak,  after 
leaving  the  region  of  Quemada,  was  graiidually  split 
into  branches  and  tribes,  each  moving  off  into  the 
seat  it  was  found  occupying  at  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards.  Although  each  of  these  divisions  would 
take  with  it  the  original  or  stem  pattern,  each  would 
gradually  modify  it  and  change  it  accordin  .•  to  fancy. 
Hence,  the  variations  as  we  move  souiii  >vard,  would 
23 


354 


Study  of  \or(h  Anwrlcaa  Archaeology. 


be  greater  than  those  seen  north  of  that  point.  There 
would  be  no  entirely  new  or  dilFerent  cultures:  all 
were  developed  from  the  one  original.  Had  this  cul- 
ture spread  northward  from  the  southern  area  instead 
of  being  a  gradual  development  during  the  movement 
southward,  the  examples  would  not  show  the  rude 
primary  types,  but  imperfect  attempts  at  a  higher  and 
more  advanced  type,  the  culture  would  not  spread 
from  the  central  point  until  it  had  become  advanced. 

No  valid  reason  has  been  given,  nor  is  it  believed 
can  be  given,  for  rejecting  the  theory  that  these 
northern  stiurtures  are  attributable  to  the  ancestors 
of  the  civilized  tribes  of  the  regions  further  south, 
supposing  the  theory  now  generally  accepted  that 
these  tribes  migrat(><l  fi-om  this  northern  section,  be 
correct.  It  is  admitted  that  the  Nahuatl  and  Sho- 
slione  tribes  liave  been  connected  socially  if  not  lin- 
guistically. It  is  also  admitted  that  the  latter  did  not 
move  jiorthward  from  the  southern  region.  Hence, 
the  Nahuatl  tribes  mt!st  have  moved  from  the  north 
southward.  It  is  also  generally  conceded,  or  at  least 
intimated,  and  apparently  in  accordance  with  the  most 
reliable  data,  that  the  Mayas  and  Zapotecs,  if  not  de- 
rived in  the  far  distant  past  from  the  same  original 
stem  as  the  Naluiatl  tribes,  had  long  been  in  intimate 
association  with  the  latter, 

Notwithsianding  the  advance  made  by  the  time  the 
latittide  of  Quemada  was  reached,  the  cause  or 
impettis,  or  whatever  we  may  term  it,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  more  advanced  civilization  of  the  southern 
sc  otion,  had  not  yet  been  exerted  or  brought  fully  into 
play.  The  beginning  of  that  architectural  art  which 
was  to  result  in  the  splendid  strtictures  of  Yucatan 
and  Chiapas  had  been  made,  but  it  is  probable  that  it 


Origin  of  Central  American  Civilization. 


;{(");") 


t.     There 
tares  :   all 
L  this  cul- 
e;i  iiisteiu! 
movement 
r  the  rude 
higher  and 
not  spread 
advanced . 
it  believed 
that    these 
,e  ancestors 
•ther  south, 
cepted   that 
section,  be 
tl  and  Sho- 
h^'  if  not  lin- 
itter  did  not 
)n.      Hence, 
n  the  north 
,  or  at  least 
ith  the  most 
cs,  if  not  de- 
ame  original 
1  in  intimate 


le 


the  time  the 
cause    or 

which  gave 

the  southern 

ght  fully  into 

al  art  which 
s  of  Yucatan 
obable  that  it 


was  not  until  the  priestly  hierarchy  was  more  thor- 
oughly organized  and  brouglit  into  full  sway,  that  the 
onward  march  toward  that  higher  culture  began  in 
real  earnest. 

Wliy  there  has  been  such  persistent  refusal  on 
the  part  of  scholars  to  accept,  as  at  least  pos- 
sible, the  theory  tliat  the  tradition  of  the  "Seven 
Caves,"  or  "Seven  Ravines" (Cliicoraoztoc  and  Tulan 
Zuiva),  refers  to  the  clifF-dwellings  or  cave-dwellings 
of  north-western  Mexico  and  Arizona,  is  difficult  to 
account  for.  There  is  nothing  in  this  supposition  con- 
trary to  the  traditions,  nor  to  the  generally-accepted 
theory  of  the  course  of  migrations.  The  number 
.seven  does  not  necessarily  play  any  particular  role  in 
the  sclution  of  this  problem.  Numbers  were  deter- 
mined from  some  incident  or  circumstance  which 
may  or  may  not  be  known.  Seven  may  have  been 
selected  because  of  some  superstition  or  because  it 
was  understood  that  seven  was  tlie  number  of  tribes 
belonging  to  a  certain  group  or  stock,  or  it  may  hav(» 
arisen  in  many  other  ways.  It  is  therefore  immaterial 
in  this  relation.  The  reference  therefore  in  the  Naliuatl 
and  Maya  traditions  to  seven  caves,  although  largely 
mixed  with  myth,  may  be  interpreted  as  possibly  refer- 
ring to  the  cliff-  or  cave-dwellings,  or  to  this  mode  of  liv- 
ing while  in  the  north.  This  would  be  appropriate  as 
explaining  the  frequent  reference  in  tliese  traditions  to 
darkness,  gloom  and  a  sunless  condition.  It  is  well 
known  that  caves  were  often  resorted  to  in  the  south- 
ern regions  as  places  for  holding  religious  ceremonies 
and  other  purposes.  The  inner  cells  of  many  of  tlie 
Central  American  temples  are  virtually  caverns  so  far 
as  light  is  concerned.  Torchlight  was  essential  to 
some  of  their  religious  ceremonies. 


3oG 


Stud  J  of  Xorlk  Anitricaii  Arckacoluyy. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


1MU!;STS lIlKKt»(iLYl'lIS C  A  I.KN  DA  K. 


No  step  ill  ailvancp  in  art  or  any  other  hraiu-h  of 
eiilnire  is  likely  to  be  taken,  esiiecially  aTuonjj;  a  com- 
paratively ri)do  people,  until  sonio  netnl  lor  tlrat  step 
is  i:  't.  Burial  originated  from  the  necessity  of  dis- 
[)osing  of  tho  dead,  and  the  stone  and  wooden  cover- 
ings, tombs  and  cells,  from  the  desire  to  secure  the 
boilies  from  injury  by  Avild  beasts  ;  dwellings,  from 
tho  need  of  shelter  and  security,  etc.  So,  in  the  more 
advanced  stages  of  society,  forward  steps  in  culture 
are  generally  the  result  of  a  felt  or  imagined  need 
therefor.  Sometimtvs  accidental  discoveries  bring  into 
use  more  efficient  implements  and  processes  than  those 
previously  employed,  but  the  adoption  of  these  is  an 
evidence  of  the  felt  need  therefor. 

Although  it  is  true,  as  remarked  by  Dr.  Tylor,  that 
priests  are  not  favorable  to  changes  or  novelties  in 
the  religious  formulas  or  ceremonies,  yet  they  are 
ever  ready  to  accept  an  increase  in  power  or  influence, 
to  add  to  the  impressiveness  and  display  of  their  pub- 
lic ceremonies,  and  are  ever  desirous  of  increasing 
the  size  and  magnificence  of  their  religious  structures. 
It  is  to  this  desire  and  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
priests  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  the  author 
believes,  are  to  be  attributed  the  rise  of  civilization 
and  its  progress,  in  these  regions,  to  a  higher  stage 
than  that  attained  any-where  else  in  North  America. 


I'rl(  xlx — irnroijbjphs — Calendar 


'U 


braiu'U  of 
II  u  a  com- 
•  that  step 
dty  of  dis- 
(lon  cover- 
socure  the 
ings,  from 
n  the  more 
in  cuhuro 
giiiocl   need 
s  bring  into 
than  those 
these  is  an 

Tyler,  that 
novelties  in 
[>t  they   are 
M- influence, 
,f  their  pub- 
increasing 
structures. 
Lience  of  the 
the   author 
civilization 
higher  stage 
th  America. 


'IMic  iiiHuence  of  the  religious  sentiment,  especially 
when  directed  l)y  a  strong  and  well-organized  priest- 
hood, is  too  well  known  to  wwd  any  proof  her(>.  The 
power  and  inHuence  of  the  priests  in  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral Aiueric;>  are  also  facts  too  well  known  to   i-ecjuire 


verilication. 


In    Mexico,    accordinir    to    one    writer 


'the  pndacy  was  as   systiMuatic,  and  its   rule   as  well 


dedncd,   as  in   the  (■hurcli   of    Rome 


The   contest 


which  was  waged  for  a  time  between  the  warrior  class 
and  priests  was  idtimately  decided  in  favor  of  the 
latter;  in  other  words,  the  prelacy  became  the  ruling 
power.  Among  the  Mayas  and  Zapotecs  the  priestly 
power  was,  if  possil)U>,  more  complete  than  among 
the  A/tecs,  the  autliority  of  the  chieftain  or  ruler  being 
almost  corapl(^t(dy  dimmed  by  it.  We  therefore  at- 
ti'ibute  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Mexican  and  Cen- 
tral American  civilization  chiefly  to  this  priesthood. 
With  their  opposition  or  indifference  it  coidd  have 
made  no  i)rogress.  Moreover,  the  chief  advance  made 
is  along  lines  intimately  connected  with  religious 
cercMuonies  and  priestly  needs. 

The  hierogly])hs  were  doubtless  the  work  of  the 
priests,  few  of  the  people  understanding,  or  being 
able  to  interpret  or  use  them.  To  the  priests,  there- 
fore, must  we  ascribe  the  inscriptions  and  manu- 
scripts, which,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge  from 
the  little  that  has  been  ascertained  in  regard  to  them, 
relate,  in  a  large  degree,  to  religious  observances,  cere- 
monies, etc.  The  calendar  system  appears  also  to  be 
based  upon,  or  at  least  adapted  to  the  religious  systems 
in  vogue  among  the  nations  which  adopted  it.  We 
are  justified,  therefore,  in  believing  that  the  advance 
in    cidture    along  the  lines   of    art,    especially    those 


[i')8  Stiith/  of  North  Ainci'ifdii  Archdfohxju. 


J 


of  arc'liiti'cturc  ;iiul  sc'iilpturi",  tlio  ciikMular  system 
and  syinl)(»lic  writing,  was  (lu(>  to  tlio  jjricstliood. 

It  is  prol)al)l('  that  no  doeidiHl  iinpulso  tovvaivl  a 
hiifhcr  cultui-c  was  j^ivcii  until  a  start  liad  boon  made 
toward  Ji  ilioi'oiigli  organization  of  the  priesthood.  That 
a  slow  and  gradual  advance  was  lK>ing  made  in  archi- 
teetiin*  is  doubtless  true,  and  it  is  also  doiibtU>ss  true 
that,  after  this  beifinninj^,  there  woidd  have  been  a 
further  slow  growth,  even  without  a  deciih'd  impulse 
from  the  pi'iesthood  ;  but  tiie  remarkable  advaneo  in- 
dicated by  the  structures  and  sculptures  of  the  south- 
ei-n  section,  as  compared  with  the  northern  monu- 
ments, indicates  some  more  potent  influence  than  was 
exerted  in  the  northern  regions. 

It  must  be  admitted,  although  we  may  be  unable  to 
entirely  solve  the  m^-steiy,  that  there  was  some  cause, 
some  impetus,  something  which  gave  rise  to  the  civ- 
ilization of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  which  did 
not  exist  or  occur  in  ('alifornia  or  any  other  part  of 
North  America.  Mr.  Bancroft  is  doubtless  correct  in 
his  declaration  that  this  can  not  be  attributed  wholly 
to  difl'erences  in  the  physical  conditions.  It  is  more 
likely  that  the  real  direct  cause  is  to  he  found  in  the 
complete  organization,  and  strong  influence  of  the 
priesthood.  This,  it  is  true,  only  serves  to  throw  the 
investigation  one  step  further  hack  ;  for  the  next  in- 
quiry will  be,  why  this  advance  in  priestly  organization 
and  influence  over  that  of  other  sections?  Although 
wo  will  not  undertake  to  give  any  answer  to  this 
question,  it  is  possible  that  a  thorough  and  careful 
study  of  what  we  may,  in  a  broad  and  compre- 
hensive sense,  terra  the  priesthoods  or  religious  organ- 
izations of  the  more  northern  tribes,  beginning  with 


00(1. 

owiircl  i\ 
cii  iua(li> 
:ul.   That 
ill  ai'cln- 
[less  tnu' 
0  boon  a 
L  impulse 
vaiioo  iu- 
he  south- 
rn   inonu- 
than  was 

unable  to 
)me  cause, 
o  the  civ- 
whicli  did 
r  part  of 
correct  hi 
d  wholly 
t  is  more 
aid  in  the 
■e  of    the 
throw  the 
le  next  iu- 
iranization 
Although 
jrer  to   this 
Liul  careful 
id   compre- 
ious  organ- 
inning  with 


te 


ic 


I'ricsts — frirrofjh/phs — Calendar. 


:159 


thos(>  of  the  l*uel)h)s,  would  furnish  a  partial  explana- 
tion. The  cult  societies  of  some  of  these  Pueblos 
di'scribed  by  Mrs.  Matilda  C  Stevenson  in  her  pajjor 
on  "The  Sia,"  in  the  "Eleventh  Animal  Uejiort  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,"  and  those  of  other 
I'ueblos  described  in  several  papers  by  I)r.  Waller 
I'\'wkes,  may  possibly  b(^  the  beginnings  from  which  the 
more  elaborate  organizations  of  the  southern  t  ribes  weni 
developed.  The  latter  author  mentions  a  number  of 
souiewhat  striking  similarities  between  the  religious 
ceremonies  of  the  trilx's  ho  studied,  and  those  of  the 
Mexicans  and  Mayas.  As  the  ))eople  among  whom 
ho  proseciUed  his  studies  were  chiefly  those  of  tho 
Hopi  or  Moki  pueblos,  jx-iiple  belonging  to  the  groat 
Uto-A/tecan  stock,  these  .'•imilaritios  become  impor- 
tant, especially  when  the  caution  of  this  author  in  ad- 
vancing theories  is  considered. 

Where  the  priesthood  in  the  course  of  the  migration 
southward  attained  that  perfection  in  its  organization, 
and  obtained  that  power  as  a  distinct  body  which  en- 
abled them  to  direct  the  several  lines  of  improvement 
leading  up  to  the  civilization  finally  reached,  can  of 
course  never  be  definitely  determined.  If  the  sugges- 
tion that  the  southern  system  was  a  development  from 
the  northern,  should  by  further  study  be  found  prob- 
able, this  development  must  of  course  have  been 
gradual.  Although  the  evidence  shows  that  the  great, 
and  apparently  rapid  advance  in  civilization  after  it 
was  once  clearly  started,  was  due  chiefly  to  the  priest- 
hood, the  attempt  to  determine  where  this  start  took 
place  would  be  in  vain. 

If  the  supposition  that  tlio  Mayas,  or  at  least  the 
eastern  division  thereof,  occupied  for  a  time  the  re- 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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A 


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4 


1.0    !lf'^  "I 


I.I 


2.5 


1.8 


11.25  11111.4   III1II.6 


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7 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


360 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


giou  of  Tula  (Mexico)  and  Teotihuacan,  and  were 
the  authors  of  some  of  tlie  works  of  those  localities 
be  correct,  wo  may  fool  assured  that  the  priesthood 
had  by  tliis  time  como  largoly  into  power  as  a  body  ; 
that  there  was  hero  an  organiz;ation  of  some  kind. 
If,  as  tlie  writer  is  inclined  to  believe  is  true,  the 
Mayas  who  occupied  this  region  probably  with  the  To- 
tonacas,  consisted  of  the  eastern  branch  which  had 
followed  the  Huastecas  as  heretofore  suggested,  their  , 
priesthood  must  have  boon  organized,  and  tha  Palon- 
que  and  Votan  problems  become  less  difficult  to  solve. 
The  traditions  of  the  other  (western)  branch  indicate 
that  their  priesthood  did  not  come  fully  into  power 
until  they  reached  that  Tulan  which  we  suggest  was 
somewhere  in  or  near  Chiapas.  Here  it  is  said  they 
received  their  gods.  The  statement  in  the  Quiche 
tradition  which  says:  "Truly  Tohil  is  tlie  name  of 
the  god  of  the  Yaqui  nation  who  was  called  Yolcuat 
(Juetzalcoatl,"  indicates  beyond  question  contact  with 
the  Aztecs,  though  the  identification  of  Tohil  with 
Quetzalcoatl  is  probably  incorrect.  The  contact  of 
priesthoods  is  probably  implied. 

It  appears  certain,  however,  that  Mayan  hieroglyphs 
did  not  come  into  use  until  the  valley  of  tlie  Usuraa- 
cinta  was  reached.  The  origin  of  these  is  difficult  to 
explain,  and  will  probably  remain  an  unsolved  prob- 
lem until  explorations  shall  bring  to  light  some  rude 
beginnings  from  which  they  were,  or  may  have  been 
developed. 

The  Mayan  glyphs  are  of  a  widely  different  type  from 
the  Mexican,  though  they  may  have  passed  through 
some  of  the  same  stages  of  growth,  but  the  general 
consensus  of  opinion  is  that  the  Mayan  is  the  older  of 


Priests — Hieroglyphs — Calotdar 


361 


id   were 
Dcalities 
iestliood 
a  body  ; 
le  kind, 
rue,  the 
1  the  To- 
uch had 
cd,  their 
la  Palcn- 
to  solve. 

indicate 
to  power 
Tfjest  was 
said  they 
e  Quiche 

name  of 
d  Yolcuat 
It  act  with 
'ohil  with 
contact  of 

eroglyphs 
0  Usuraa- 
Utftcult  to 
Lved  prob- 
some  rude 
have  been 

,  type  from 
d  through 
le  general 
ic  older  of 


the  two  classes,  and  that  these  two  classes  have  de- 
veloped independently.  As  it  seems  ap))arent  that 
tliey  were  not  brought  into  use  until  some  of  the 
Mavas  had  reached  the  Usumacinta  valley,  it  seems 
possible  that  they  are  not  older  than  the  Mexican 
symbols,  though  the  opposite  view  is  generally  enter- 
tained. 

It  has  been  found  possible  to  determine  with  rea- 
sonable certainty  the  objects  from  which  some  few  of 
the  Mayan  symbols  were  drawn.  These  derivations 
indicate  that  the  symbols  had  already  been  brought 
into  use  when  tluy  were  adopted  to  represent  the 
days,  and  that  considerable  advance  had  been  made 
in  hieroglyphic  writing.  We  are  compelled,  there- 
fore, to  admit  that  the  origin  of  this  writing  is  a 
mystery  we  are  unable  to  fully  penetrate.  The  va- 
rious steps  through  which  several  of  the  characters 
used  had  passed  before  reaching  their  final  forms  may 
be  theoretically  traced,  but  monumental  evidence  on 
this  point  is  wanting,  at  least  so  far  as  the  author  is 
aware.  There  can  be  but  little  if  any  doubt  that 
their  development  and  use  was  due  to  the  priests.  It 
also  appears  that  this  form  of  writing  was  confined 
to  the  Mayan  tribes,  a  fact  which,  considering  the  in- 
timate relations  of  these  tribes  with  other  stocks,  in- 
dicates that  it  had  advanced  to  that  stage  which  pre- 
vented its  adaptation  to  other  languages.  More 
especially  does  this  appear  to  be  a  proper  conclusion 
when  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  so- 
called  "Native  Calendar"  luid  been  adopted  by  some 
half  a  dozen  different  stocks. 

How  are  we  to  accoiuit  for  the  spread  of  the  com- 
plicated calendar  system  through  so   many  different 


362  Study  of  North  American  Archaeologj/. 

and  even  hostile  stocks,  as  stated  in  a  preceding  chap- 
ter, when  each  had  necessarily  to,  or  at  least  did,  assign 
different  names  to  the  days  and  months,  and  adopted 
different  symbols,  so  far  as  these  are  known  to  liave 
been  brought  into  use?  There  seems  to  be  but  one  an- 
swer :  it  was  through  the  influence  of  the  priests.  Nor 
does  this  appear  to  solve  tlie  problein,  except  upon  the 
further  supposition  that  there  was  some  kind  of  rela- 
tionship, understanding  or  intercourse  between  the 
priesthoods  of  the  different  stocks  or  tribes,  not  lim- 
ited by  ethnic  lines.  It  is  only  by  the  supposition  of 
"a  powerful  secret  organization,"  as  Dr.  Brinton  has 
shown,  "extending  over  a  wide  area,  including  mem- 
bers of  different  languages  and  varying  culture," 
that  the  spread  of  Nagualism  can  bo  explained. 
That  the  various  stocks  and  tribes,  some  of  which 
were  at  constant  war  with  one  another,  should  have 
adopted  the  same  calendar  system,  which  was  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  work  and  office  of  the  priests, 
except  through  their  influence,  seems  impossible. 
Moreover,  that  influence  must  have  i)een  specially 
exerted  for  tliis  purpose  and  to  this  end.  Is  it  not 
possible  that  this  will  servo  in  part  to  explain  the 
numerous  traditions  relating  to  the  sudden  appear- 
ance of  priestly  civilizers  in  various  sections? 

The  traditions  of  the  Mexicans  and  Central  Ameri- 
cans regarding  the  sudden  appearance  in  their  midst 
and  as  sudden  departure  of  great  reformers  and  civil- 
izers,  who  were  afterward  regarded  as  culture  heroes, 
have  long  been  and  still  continue  to  be  jiuzzles,  in  re- 
gard to  which  students  have,  as  yet,  been  unal)lo  to 
offer  any  generally  accepted  solution.  It  is  Quetzal- 
coatl  among  the  Mexicans,  Votan  among  the  tribes  of 


Priests — Hieroglyph  s —  Cale  ndar. 


363 


;  chap- 
assign 
dopted 
0  have 
one  an- 
1,     Nor 
3on  the 
3f  rela- 
!en  the 
ot  lim- 
Ltion  of 
ton  has 
y  mem- 
ilture," 
ilained. 
'  which 
Id  have 
IS  espe- 
priests, 
)()ssible. 
)ecially 
s  it  not 
ain  the 
appear- 

Ameri- 
V  midst 
lid  civil- 
heroes, 
s,  in  re- 
liable to 
Quetzal- 
tribes  of 


the  Usumacinta,  Cukulcan  and  Itzamna  among  the 
Mavas  of  Yucatan,  and  Gucumatz  with  the  tribes  of 
Guatemala. 

Some  authors  attempt  to  explain  these  by  the  solar 
myth,  resolving  all  these  traditional  founders  into 
personified  Dawn,  Lightning,  and  the  like.  But  as 
Hutson  justly  remarks  :  "We  have  had  abundant  evi- 
dence that  this  method  of  explanation  can  be  pushed 
too  far,  and  its  results  have  always  been  too  vague  to 
add  any  thing  to  our  real  knowledge  of  early  ethnic 
life."  Is  it  not  possible  that  these  traditional  person- 
ages were  priestly  messengers  traveling  from  tribe  to 
tribe  to  weld  together  a  common  brotherhood?  Such 
a  supposition  would  not  be  more  extravagant  than 
that  theory  which  makes  of  them  sun  and  light 
myths. 

If  the  statement  made  by  some  writers,  that  war 
was  often  waged  between  Mexican  nations  by  agree- 
ment or  understanding  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
captives  for  sacrifice,  be  true,  it  is  certain  that  this 
was  instigated  by  the  priests,  and,  moreover,  indi- 
cates some  secret  relation  between  the  different  priest- 
hoods. It  is  proper,  however,  to  remark  that  Bandelier 
questions  this. 

The  division  of  the  year  into  eighteen  months  of 
twenty  days  each  is  the  most  radical  change  of  the 
system  from  the  usual  lunar  count,  or  count  by 
moons.  It  is  generally  admitted  by  scholars  who 
liave  referred  to  the  subject,  that  the  original  Mayan 
calendar  must  have  been  based  on  the  usual  lunar 
count.  There  is  even  positive  evidence  that  there 
was  in  vogue  at  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards,  at  least 
in  some  sections,  a  secular  month  of  thirty  days,  giv- 


3G4 


Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 


ing  twolvo  inontlis  to  the  year.  In  tlio  "Report  on 
the  City  of  Valladolid,  AvrittcMi  by  the  Corporation  of 
the  city  by  order  of  His  ^fajesty  and  the  v(M'y  illus- 
trious Seiior  Don  (tiiillen  de  las  Casas,  Governor  and 
Captain  General,  April,  1529,"  we  find  tlie  following 
statement  :  "They  [the  Indians]  divided  the  time  by 
months  of  thirty  days,  and  on  the  first  day  of  the 
year,  before  dawn,  every  one,  including  the  Alquin 
[priest],  watched  for  the  rising  sim  and  held  a  great 
feast  on  that  day."  That  this  change  could  have  come 
about  by  any  gradual  ])rocess  seems  impossible.  We 
are  therefore  justified  in  believing  that  it  was  arbitra- 
rily made  by  the  priests,  or  that  it  was  brought  into 
vogue  through  some  foreign  influence.  Mention  of 
the  lunar  count  and  the  year  of  twelve  months  is 
also  made  by  other  early  writ(>rs. 

Where  and  in  what  stock  did  this  calendar  have  its 
origin,  are  questions  to  which  students  will  probably 
never  be  able  to  give  satisfactory  answers.  If  we 
could  decide  positively  which  came  into  vogue  first, 
the  calendar  or  the  symbolic  writing,  we  might  give 
approximately  correct  answers.  That  the  Mayan  hiero- 
glyphs, as  has  already  been  stated,  did  not  come  into 
use  until  the  people  of  this  stock  had  reached  the  valley 
of  the  Usumacinta,  may  perhaps  be  confidently  asserted. 
It  may  also  be  confidently  asserted  that  the  Mexican 
method  of  representing  days  and  numbers  did  not  corae 
into  use  until  after  the  Aztecs  had  settled  in  the  valley 
of  Anahuac.  It  is  stated  in  the  Cakchiquel  Annals, 
according  to  Dr.  Brinton's  translation,  that  among  the 
tributes  tiiey  paid  at  Tulan  were  "astrological  calen- 
dars and  reckoning  calendars."  If  this  refers  to  the 
"Native  Calendar,"  it  follows  that  both  calendar  and 


Prlcdn — Hie  I'otjh/i)  /t.s — Ca  Ic  n  da  r . 


305 


port  on 
iition  of 
■y  illus- 
nor  and 
illowing 
time  by 
^  of  the 
Alquin 
a  great 
ve  come 
lie.     Wo 
arbitra- 
sht  into 
■ntion  of 
lontlis   is 

have  its 
probably 
If    we 
ue  first, 
ght  give 
an  hiero- 
ome  into 
le  valley 
asserted. 
Mexican 
not  come 
le  valley 
Annals, 
mong  the 
al  calen- 
rs  to  the 
ndar  and 


symbols  were  then  in  use.  However,  as  we  liavo  en- 
deavored to  show,  the  advanced  Mayan  tribes  were 
already  located  in  the  Usuraacinta  region  when  the 
Cakchiqucls  reached  this  Tulan.  It  will  perhaps  be 
safe  to  assume  tliat  the  various  stocks  using  the 
cakndar  had  reached  substantially  their  historic  seats 
at  the  time  of  its  a(loi')tion. 

That  such  a  time  system  could  have  come  into 
use  independently  in  some  half-dozen  different  stocks. 
relatively  at  the  same  time,  seems  improbable.  As  its 
origin  is  most  naturally  ascribed  to  one  stock  or  people, 
it  must  have  been  forced  upon  other  peoples  by  some 
strong  pressure  instigated  by  the  priests,  or  brought 
into  use  through  the  influence  of  the  priesthood.  By 
the  earlier  authors  it  is  attributed  to  the  Toltecs,  which 
according  to  the  view  herein  adopted  would  be  indefi- 
nite, but  most  likely  would  refer  to  the  Mayas  while 
in  central  Mexico,  or  at  least  before  reacliing  their 
historic  localities.  Orozco  y  Berra,  who  is  followed 
in  this  respect  by  Dr.  Seler,  expressed  the  opinion 
with  confidence  that  it  had  its  origin  among  the  Za- 
potecs.  Dr.  Brinton  says  he  has  been  unable  to  reach 
any  definite  decision  on  the  question,  but  is  inclined 
to  the  opinion  "that  it  was  the  invention  of  that  an- 
cient branch  of  the  Mayan  stock  who  inhabited  the 
present  states  of  Chiapas  and  Tabasco." 

It  is  probable  that  the  former  opinion  is  the  correct 
one.  The  evidences  of  an  impress  of  culture  by  the 
Zapotecs  upon  the  Mexicans,  or  the  reverse,  have  been 
referred  to.  The  figures  recently  copied  by  Prof. 
Frederick  Starr  from  the  Mitla  ruins,  and  i)ublished  in 
his   "Notes   on   Mexican   Archaeology,"   show  types 


366  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

corresponding  beyond  question  with  those  of  tlie 
Mexicans. 

One  prominent  feature  of  these  figures  is  the  TLaloc 
nose — or  elephant-like  probocis. 

It  may  be  that  the  Zapotecs  were  the  pioneers  in 
Central  American  civilization.  It  is  certain,  as  we 
have  seen,  that  some  of  the  peculiar  types  found  at 
Mitla  appear  also  at  Quemada,  a  fact  which  has  been 
noticed  by  several  writers. 

The  conclusions  which  seem  to  be  most  in  accord 
with  the  data  are  : 

That  the  Mayan  stock  came  from  the  north-west, 
substantially  along  the  same  route  followed  subse- 
quently by  the  Nahuatl  tribes,  and  that  they  had 
been,  at-some  early  day,  previous  to  or  soon  after  en- 
tering the  area  of  Mexico,  in  comparatively  close 
relations  with  the  Nahuatl  stock. 

That  somewhere  in  central  Mexico,  one  branch,  or 
part  of  the  family  led  by  the  Huastecas,  broke  away 
from  the  other  part  and  pushing  in  advance,  in  com- 
pany with  the  Totonacas,  occupied  for  a  time  the  re- 
gion embracing  the  Mexican  Tula  and  Teotihuacan. 
The  Huastecas  and  Totonacas  moved  on  to  the  gulf 
shore,  while  the  remaining  portion  of  this  eastern 
branch  passed  on  southward  to  the  valley  of  the 
Usuraacinta,  a  part  at  least  going  by  way  of  Tabasco, 
another  portion  going  directly  to  the  upper  portion  of 
the  valley.  From  the.se  colonies  the  Peten  region  and 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  werf  peopled.  The  other 
branch,  after  dwelling  for  a  time  in  the  region  of 
Chiapas,  scattered  in  tribes  south  and  south-east  to 
their  historic  seats. 

That  the  advance  in  the  architectural  art  began 


)   of    the 

he  Tlaloc 

jiieers  in 
n,  as  we 
found  at 
has  been 


Pric^ts—Hicroghjphs— Calendar.  367 

while  they  were  yot  in  central  Mexico,  its  rapid  pro- 
gress being  due  to  the  infiuenee  of  the  priesthood. 

That  tlie  use  of  hieroglyphs  among  the  Mayas  be- 
gan with  tlie  colonies  who  settled  on  the  Usumacinta. 

That  the  calendar  probably  had  its  origin  with  the 
Zapotocs,  and  that  it  spread  to  the  different  stocks 
through  the  direct  influenco  of  the  priests. 


in  accord 

)rth-west, 
sd  subse- 
they  had 
after  en- 
relv  close 

)ranch,  or 
oke  away 
B,  in  com- 
ae the  re- 
jtihuacan. 
3  the  gulf 
is  eastern 
ey  of  the 
f  Tabasco, 
portion  of 
I'egion  and 
The  other 
region  of 
ith-east  to 


art  began 


3(3.S 


iStiulij  of  Nut'th  American  Airlnnolufjy. 


CHAPTP]R   XXV. 


t'ONCLlSION. 


Altliougli  it  is  true,  as  statod  in  the  openin<f  chap- 
ter, that  the  monunu'itts  aiul  relics  must  be  our  chief 
reliance  in  studying  the  customs,  arts  and  activities 
of  prehistoric  jx'oples,  language  must  form  the  chief 
l)asis  here,  as  has  been  found  true  in  the  old  world,  of 
the  theories  relating  to  the  more  remote  periods,  when 
the  identification  of  race  or  stock  is  the  object  in  view. 
The  character  and  types  of  the  monuments  and  arte- 
facts and  to  some  extent  of  customs  and  superstitions, 
as  shown  by  what  has  been  presented  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  are  largely  the  result  of  pliysical  environ- 
ment ;  hence,  in  attempts  to  trace  relationship  of 
trib(>s  and  i)eoples  and  to  follow  the  movements  of  pop- 
ulation in  })rehishoric  times,  language  must  be  our 
chief  reliance.  But  language  and  monuments,  so  far 
as  the  latter  are  to  be  found,  should  tell  the  same 
tale. 

The  coincident  testimony  of  these  two  classes  of  ev- 
idence, fortified  by  other  data  bearing  on  the  subject, 
lead  to  and  seem  to  justify  the  geographical  division 
of  North  America,  in  reference  to  its  archaeology,  into 
the  three  primary  regions  which  have  been  outlined. 
If  this  conclusion  be  accepted,  at  least  so  far  as  it  re- 
lates to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  divisions,  it  will 
(leaving  out  of  view  the  question  of  origin  or  race) 
relieve  the  study  of  prehistoric  North  America  of  some 


L'o}K'lllNi()ll . 


309 


r  oliap- 
ir  c'hiot' 
'tivitics 
le  cliict" 
orld,  of 
s,  when 
m  view. 
kI  arte- 
stitions, 
•eceding 
mviron- 
ship   of 
of  pop- 
je   our 
so  far 
10  same 

39  of  ev- 
ubject, 
ivision 
gy,  into 
utlined. 
as  it  re- 
it  will 
or  race) 
of  some 


hitherto  troublesome  questions  and  elimiiuite  some 
theories  still  atlvocated.  It  will  form  one  important 
step  in  the  arrangement  of  the  archaeological  data  of 
the  northern  ct)ntinent. 

Led  b}'  the  dim  rays  of  light  the  data  afford,  rely- 
ing chiefly  on  language,  geographical  features  and  tra- 
dition, together  with  the  few  historic  facts  relating  to 
the  more  recent  migrations,  the  conclusion  reached 
is  that  the  great  movements  of  population  in  pre- 
historic times  in  North  America  have  been  southward. 
Tracing  back  the  streams  toward  their  sources,  we 
have  found  that  the  converging  point  appears  to  be 
the  inhospitable  region  stretching  from  the  western 
.»<hore  of  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Thence  two  streams  flowed  southward  :  parted  by  the 
great  treeless  plains  stretching  from  the  Saskatchewan 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  one  moved  south  along  the  moun- 
tain skirt  and  passed  to  the  Pacific  side,  the  other 
going  to  the  Atlantic  side.  From  straying  bands 
seeking  localities  of  more  abundant  food,  which  be- 
came permanently  separated  from  the  parent  group, 
were  developed,  in  all  probability,  partly  by  growth  and 
partly  by  combination,  one  with  another,  many,  possibly 
most,  of  the  so-called  stocks  ;  others  had  possibly  been 
differentiated  before  reaching  the  continent,  if,  as  is  not 
improbable,  the  peopling  was  by  the  incoming  of  suc- 
cessive parties  along  substantially  the  same  route. 

However,  the  reader  must  keep  in  mind  the  fact 
that  there  are  two  theories  in  regard  to  the  general 
movements  of  population  in  the  Atlantic  division  in 
prehistoric  times,  each  of  which  is  maintained  by 
strong  advocates.  One  of  these  is  that  which  has 
24 


370  Sfnth/  of  Xorth  Amirican  Arclinvoloijii. 

been  followed  in  this  work,  the  other  that  which  holds 
tiiat  the  spread  of  population  has  been  from  the  At- 
lantic border.  It  the  latter  theory  be  adopted,  and  it 
be  assumed  that  the  Pacific  slope  was  populated  from 
this  eastern  j^roup,  it  would  seem  necessary,  from  the 
evidence  herein  presented  in  regard  to  the  movements 
on  the  Pacific  side,  to  assume  that  one  important  stream 
from  the  Atlantic  side  flowed  north-westward,  at  least 
as  far  north  as  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  (and  even 
farther,  judging  by  the  movements  of  the  Athapascans) , 
and  then  turnt>d  southward,  moving  down  the  western 
side.  For  it  seems  certain  that  the  gr(>at  plains  formed 
a  barrier  seldom  traversed  in  prehistoric  times  except 
toward  their  northern  extremity.  It  might  perhaps 
be  consistent  with  this  theory  to  assume  that  the 
Mayan  group  moved  southward  along  the  Gulf  coast. 
Although  this  theory  of  a  dispersion  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  is  held  by  a  number  of  able  advocates,  the 
author  of  this  work  has  been  led  by  his  study  of  the 
evidence  to  believe  that  the  Atlantic  divis'on  was  pop- 
ulated from  the  north-west,  and  tliat  the  Pacific  di- 
vision received  its  population  chiefly  from  the  same 
region.  The  reader,  however,  is  left  to  accept  either 
theory  whicli  appears  to  him  to  be  most  in  accord  with 
the  data  which  we  have  presented. 

In  our  attempts  to  trace  back  the  development  of 
tribes  and  peoples  to  more  distant  eras,  we  have,  when 
the  monuments  and  other  evidence  failed  us,  appealed 
to  language  as  indicating  former  relationship,  but  it 
is  necessary  here  also  to  remind  the  reader  that  on 
this  point  different  views  are  entti'tained  by  linguists. 
On  the  one  side,  it  is  held  by  some  authors  that  affinity 
of  languages  implies  racial  identity  or  unity  of  origin  ; 
on  the  other,  it  is  contended  that  the  theory  that  the 


Concliinion. 


871 


ch  holds 
.  the  At- 
[1,  and  it 
:od  from 
from  tlio 
)vements 
It  stream 
,  at  least 
and  even 
Dascans) , 
3  western 
IS  formed 
es  except 
i  perhaps 
that   the 
ulf  coast, 
e  Atlantic 
3ates,  the 
dy  of  the 
was  po])- 
acific  di- 
the  same 
ept  either 
cord  with 

)praent  of 
ive,  when 
,  appealed 

ip,  but  it 
er  that  on 

linguists, 
lat  affinity 

of  origin ; 

y  that  the 


affinity  of  languages  n(>cessarily  implies  identity  of 
race  is  not  warranted.  It  may  1)0  stated  as  evi- 
dent that  where  a  tribe  or  jjeople  has  incorporated 
into  itself  elements  from  another  race  or  stock,  as  tli(» 
negroes  in  the  Unitetl  States,  and  these  elements  have 
adopted  the  language  of  that  tribe  or  people,  the  lan- 
guage will  not  be  an  evidence  of  race.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  correct  theory  will  be  found  interme- 
diate between  these  two,  and  this  position,  we  no- 
tice, has  been  taken  by  Mr.  A.  II.  Keane  in  his  recent 
work  on  ethnology.  Another  view,  also  intermediate, 
but  differing  somewhat  from  any  yet  presented,  and 
which  promises  apparently  to  be  more  comprehensive 
in  its  scope,  appears  to  be  foreshadowed  by  Major  J. 
W.  Powell,  director  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Eth- 
nology, in  his  remarks  on  the  Indian  linguistic  fam- 
ilies in  his  7th  Annual  Report.     He  says  : 

"The  opinion  that  the  differentiation  of  languages 
within  a  single  stock  is  mainly  due  to  the  absorption 
of  materials  from  other  stocks,  often  to  the  extin- 
guishment of  the  latter,  has  grown  from  year  to  year 
as  the  investigation  has  proceeded.  Wherever  the 
material  has  been  sufficient  to  warrant  a  conclusion 
on  this  subject,  no  language  has  been  found  to  be  sim- 
ple in  its  origin,  but  every  langruigo  has  been  found 
to  be  composed  of  diverse  elements.  The  processes 
of  borrowing  known  in  historic  times  are  those  which 
have  been  at  work  in  prehistoric  times,  and  it  is  not 
probable  that  any  simple  language  derived  from  some 
single  pristine  group  of  roots  can  be  discovered." 

Our  allusions,  therefore,  to  the  inference  which 
may  be  drawn  from  affinity  in  language  as  evidence 
of   migrations   must   be   taken  only  as   indicative  of 


372  Study  of  Xurth  American  Arcliavolitgy. 


i 


N 


former  intimate  relationsliip  of  some  kind,  not  neces- 
sarily racial,  for  affinity  in  languages  necessarily  im- 
plies former  intimate  relationship  of  some  kind. 

That  the  cliii^f  stream  on  the  Pacific  side  had  its 
soui'ce  east  of  tlie  Rockv  Mountains  in  the  region 
mentioned  seems  likely  from  what  has  been  shown  in 
regivrd  to  the  general  course  of  migration  so  far  as  it 
can  be  traced.  One  puzzling  feature  of  the  California 
and  Oregon  coast  appears  to  receive  at  least  a  partial 
explanation  by  this  theory  of  movements  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  continent.  We  allude  to  the  large 
number  of  diminutive  stocks,  as  heretofore  mentioned, 
crowded  into  this  narrow  shore  strip. 

The  explanation  of  the  problem  appears  to  be  found 
in  the  position  of  the  minor  Athapascan  offshoots  lo- 
cated along  the  coost  of  Oregon  and  California.  Al- 
though the  later  movements  of  these  brandies,  which 
brought  them  to  their  historic  homes,  have  taken  place 
within  modern  times,  the  date  when  some  of  them  re- 
moved from  their  priscan  habitats  probably  belongs  to 
the  prehistoric  era,  though  comparatively  recent.  The 
other  minor  stocks  are  probably  fragments  of  other 
families  from  which  they  separated  at  a  much  earlier 
date,  which,  under  the  influence  of  changed  surround- 
ings and  through  intermarriages  and  combinations 
with  other  bands,  have  formed  new  groups  and  new 
languages.  The  following  remarks  by  Dr.  Gibbs,  who 
is  considered  an  authority  on  the  Indian  tribes  of  this 
region,  may  be  appropriately  quotetl  here  : 

"If  I  may  hazard  a  conjecture  at  present,  it  is  that 
I  he  Tah-kali  [Dene]  and  Selisli  families,  with  perhaps 
the  Shoshono  and  some  others,  originated  east  of  the 
Rocky    Mountains ;    that   the    country  between   that 


t  neces- 
rily  ini- 

a. ' 

had  its 
;  region 
hown  in 
far  as  it 
ilifornia 
\  partial 
he  west- 
lie  large 
■ntioned, 

be  found 
hoots  lo- 
iiia.     Al- 
fs,  which 
en  place 
thera  rc- 
[?longs  to 
nt.   The 
of  other 
h  earlier 
urround- 
)inations 
find  new 
lbs,  Avho 
s  of  this 

It  is  that 
I  perhaps 
tt  of  the 
KMi   that 


ConduHion. 


373 


chain  and  the  great  lakes  has  been  a  center  from 
■which  population  luis  diverged  ;  that  these  two  tribes 
crosscnl  liy  the  nortliern  passes  of  the  mountains  ;  and 
that  their  branches  have  since  been  pushing  westward 
and  southward.  Whether  the  soutliern  branches  of 
the  Tah-kali  have  been  separated  and  driven  on  by 
the  subsequent  irruption  of  the  Selish,  or  whether 
they  have  passed  over  their  heads,  can,  perhaps,  be 
ascertained  on  a  severe  comparison  of  the  different 
dialects  into  which  each  has  become  divided  ;  it  being 
reasonable  tq  infer  that  those  which  differ  most  from 
the  present  are  the  oldest  in  date  and  emigration. 

"The  route  of  the  Selish  has  obviously  been  along 
the  courses  of  the  two  great  rivers,  the  Frazer  and 
the  Columbia,  By  the  former,  they  seem  to  have 
peii^^trated  to  the  sea,  while  on  the  latter  they  were 
stopi^ed  by  the  Sahaptin  and  the  Tsinuk.  Some 
bran^'hes  undoubtedly  crossed  the  Cascade  range,  at 
different  points,  to  the  Sound,  and  the  country  inter- 
mediate between  that  and  the  Columbia.  And  the 
Tilaroak  have  overstepped  that  boundary  and  fixed 
themselves  on  the  coast  of  Oregon.  The  southern 
limit  01  the  Tah-kali  is  not  yet  ascertained.  Mr. 
Hale  identified  the  Umkwa  as  an  offshoot.  Lieuten- 
ant Kautz  has  lately  shown  the  Tu-tu-ten  to  be  another, 
and  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the  California  languages 
may  also  be  assimilated.  Dr.  Newell  states  that, 
since  he  was  first  in  the  Indian  country,  all  the  great 
tribes  have  been  gradually  breaking  up  into  bands. 
Whenever  two  chiefs  attain  about  an  equality  of 
power  and  influence,  jealousies  arise,  which  lead  to  a 
separation  of  the  tribe,  Tliese  are  formed  by  many 
causes,  the  chattering  of  the  women,  of  course,  among 


374  Study  of  North  American  ArcJiacology . 


M 

k 


\ 


others.  Before  the  introduction  of  firearms,  the 
range  of  the  different  tribes  was  more  limited  than 
now.  Tliey  did  not  travel  so  far  from  tlieir  own 
coiintrv.  Tliis  hist  is  less  applicable  to  the  coast 
tribes  tlian  to  those  of  the  interior.  The  former  are, 
liowevM",  more  split  up,  and  those  of  the  Sound  coun- 
try, perhaps,  most  of  all.  The  influence  possessed 
even  by  those  claiming  to  be  head  cliiefs  has  become 
almost  nothing ;  and  in  case  of  any  disagreement  in 
a  band,  the  dissatisfi.ed  party  move  off  to  a  little  dis- 
tance and  take  the  name  of  the  ground  they  occupy, 
or  any  one  desirous  of  establishing  a  band  on  his  own 
account  induces  a  party  of  his  immediate  followers  to 
accompany  him,  and  start,  as  it  were,  a  new  colony. 
It  is  to  this  separation,  and  to  the  petty  hostilities 
whicli  often  grew  out  of  it,  that  we  must  mainly  at- 
tribute the  diversity  of  dialects  prevailing." 

The  southward  movement  was  a  slow  process,  re- 
quiring possibly  thousands  of  years,  during  which 
streams  were  split  into  branches,  while  othei-s  per- 
haps coalesced.  However,  in  studying  the  ';istory 
and  migrations  of  the  aborigines  in  prehistoric  times, 
we  must  disabuse  our  minds  of  the  idea  of  .;  dense 
popidation.  We  have  spoken  in  tlie  preceding  chap- 
ters of  the  "growth  and  swelling  of  the  mass"  in  the 
terms  used  by  writers  in  relation  to  tlie  movements  of 
peoples  in  the  old  world,  yet  the  idea  obtained  is  likely 
to  prove  erroneous  without  explanation,  as  the  usual 
estimate  of  our  native  i)opulation  is  erroneous.  Tlie 
native  population  of  the  Atlantic  division  was  prob- 
ably at  no  time  as  great  in  numbers  as  has  been  sup- 
posed by  those  who  have  not  carefully  investigated 
the  subject.     Detached  villages  scattered  over  a  hirge 


Conclusion. 


875 


ms,  tlic 
ed  than 
?ir  own 
10  coast 
iier  are, 
id  coun- 
osscsscd 

become 
ment  in 
ttle  dis- 
occupy, 
his  own 
3wers  to 

colony, 
ostilities 
ainly  at- 

cess,  re- 

nr  which 

ci-s  per- 

'ustory 

ic  times, 

dense 

g  chap- 

'  in  the 

ncnts  of 

is  likely 

16  usual 

is.     The 

IS  prob- 

een  sup- 

stigated 

a  hirsje 


area  were  necessary  to  a  people  (Impending  on  tiie  chas(» 
alone  for  subsistence  ;  and  when  tlie  country  was  clear 
before  them,  bands  would  continue  to  wander  fartlier 
and  farther  from  (>ach  otlier,  thus  by  long  isola- 
tion and  the  influence  of  changed  pliysical  conditions 
ffivini'  rise  to  new  tribes  and  stocks  and  various  cus- 
toras.  It  is  tlierefore  in  this  sense  the  growth  and 
expansion  of  the  native  population,  while  depending 
on  the  chase,  is  to  be  understood.  The  Indians  would 
have  considered  Illinois  crowded  had  it  contained  one- 
twentieth  the  number  of  souls  now  living  in  the  city 
of  Chicago ;  and  Pennsj'lvania  overstockrd  with  a 
population  of  fifty  thousand  or  even  forty  thousand. 

As  more  congenial  climes  were  reached  in  their 
movement  southward,  and  cultivation  of  the  soil  l)e- 
gan,  the  tribes  became  more  and  more  sedentary  and 
the  arts  developed.  The  discovery  of  maize  and  its 
use  as  a  food  plant  was  probably  one  of  the  most 
potent  agencies  in  bringing  about  this  sedentary  con- 
dition. Its  use  crept  slowly  northward  against  the 
tide,  changing  nomads  and  hunters,  at  least  partially, 
into  settled  agricultural  tribes.  The  strong  families 
occupied  the  interior  choice  districts,  pressing  the 
older,  weaker  and  broken  stocks  to  the  shores. 

Moving  southward  from  the  cold  and  inhospitable 
sections  of  the  north,  it  is  not  until  we  reach  the  more 
favored  districts,  where  agriculture  was  resortcl  to  as 
a  partial  means  of  subsistence,  that  monuments  indi- 
cating an  advanced  culture  appear.  It  is  in  Ohio,  in 
the  lower  Mississippi  valley  and  the  Gulf  states  of  the 
mound  section — regions  of  richest  soil  and  best 
adapted  to  agriculture — that  the  most  stately  mounds 
and  imposing  earthworks  are  found.     Moving  south- 


37() 


Study  of  North  Aiiuriraii  Archaiolof/tj. 


Avarcl  on  tlio  Pacific  side  it  is  in  tho  mild  ('limat(^  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  the  land  of  mai/e  and 
tropical  fruits,  wq  find  evidences  of  the  most  advanced 
civilization.  Wisconsin  or  the  effigy-moiind  region 
possibly  forms  an  exception  to  this  rule,  yet  some  of 
the  tril)es  of  the  southern  half  of  that  state,  whei'e 
the  chief  works  are  found,  may  havc^  entennl  the  agri- 
cultural stage  at  tlio  time  they  were  constructed, 
nevertheless  the  objects  imitated  indicate  that  they 
were  still  in  the  hunting  state,  although  they  must 
have  been  to  a  largo  extent  scnlentary. 

Development  of.  culture  appears  to  have  been  in 
some  degree  retroactive,  that  is  to  say,  although  the 
unfolding  seems  to  have  been  from  north  toward  the 
south,  yet  the  more  advanced  culture  seems  to  have 
moved  backward,  to  some  extent,  on  its  pathway. 
What  appear  to  be  evidences  of  this  are  found  in  the 
mound  area  where  a  few  large  pyramidal  mounds  of 
the  true  southern  type  are  found  north  of  the  Ohio  in 
Illinois  and  Indiana,  and  strange  to  say,  in  one  in- 
stance at  least,  combined  with  a  northern  type  which 
seems  to  have  been  developed  in  and  was  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  the  limits  of  Wisconsin.  The 
same  thing  appears  to  have  been  true  to  some  extent 
in  the  Pacific  division,  especially  in  regard  to  certain 
customs  and  religious  ceremonies.  As  the  cultivation 
of  maize  extended  northward  against  the  stream,  it 
carried  with  it  some  new  arts  and  customs  which  orijj- 
inated  in  more  southern  climes.  It  is  evident,  how- 
ever, that  arts  and  customs  and  even  superstitions,  re- 
sulted to  a  considerable  extent  from  physical  condi- 
tions. This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  architecture, 
designs  and  customs  of  particular  districts,  which  are 


Conclusion. 


377 


nato  of 
i/e  and 
Ivancod 

rcifion 
iomo  of 

where 
lie  agri- 
tructed, 
at  thev 
'y  must 

been  in 
Ligh  the 
ard  the 
to  have 
athway. 
1  in  the 
unds  of 
Ohio  in 
one  in- 
which 
on  fined 
Tlie 
extent 
certain 
tivation 
eani,  it 
'h  orig- 
t,  how- 
ions,  re- 
condi- 
tecture, 
lich  are 


and  have  long  been  inhabited  by  widely  different 
stocks,  often  present  a  general  similarity.  This 
broad  resemblance,  or,  as  it  were,  uniform  coloring  or 
shading  of  various  forms  or  types,  is  due,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  the  pliysical  conditions  ;  as,  for  example,  in 
the  Pueblo  section,  and  California. 

No  evidence  of  buildings  of  stone,  adobe  or  burned 
brick  has  been  found  in  the  Atlantic  division.  Wood, 
which  was  abundant  in  most  sections,  supplied  ma- 
terial for  all  the  structures  their  customs  required. 
It  is  true  that  the  early  mound  explorers  speak  of 
burned  brick  found  in  southern  tumuli,  but  more  re- 
cent examinations  have  shown  tlio  material  to  be  but 
the  burnt  plastering  of  dwellings  consumed  by  fire. 
On  the  Pacific  side,  adobe  was  used  as  a  building  ma- 
terial from  Arizona  to  Oaxaca,  and  stone  was  the  chief 
material  of  structures  from  New  Mexico  to  the  Isth- 
mus. This  difference  is  of  course  to  be  attributed  in 
a  large  degree  to  the  differences  in  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  two  sections.  That  stone,  thougli  it 
might  be  laid  up  rudely  and  undressed,  and  adobe 
would  be  used  in  the  construction  of  dwellings  in  the 
arid  and  treeless  areas  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
might  reasonably  be  surmised  in  advance  of  evidence. 

Judging  by  the  difference  in  the  advance  made  to- 
ward civilized  life,  the  character  of  the  monuments 
and  the  deeper  covering  of  earth  and  rubbish  over 
manv  of  the  ruins  of  the  southern  sections  of  the  Pa- 
cific  division,  the  reasonable  conclusion  seems  to  be 
that  the  latter  was  peopled  in  advance  of  the  Atlantic 
division.  Although  intercourse  between  the  two  di- 
visions appears  to  have  been  very  limited,  there  is 
some  evidence  that  a  few  designs  in  art  found  their 


878 


Sfiidi/  of  Xortli  American  Archacologi/. 


way  from  tho  Pacific  into  tlie  Atlantic  division,  hut 
none,  so  far  as  tho  autlior  is  aware,  that  any  travolocl 
in  tlie  opposite  direction. 

As  this  work  is  limited  to  the  archaeology  of  North 
America,  of  whicli  only  a  brief  and,  in  some  respects, 
incomplete  notice  has  been  presented,  no  allusion  to 
South  American  antiquities  has  been  made.  How- 
ever, as  the  conclusion  reached  in  regard  to  the  possi- 
bility that  the  latter  continent  was  peopled  from  the 
former  will  have  an  important  bearing  on  some  of 
the  problems  discussed,  the  following  suggestions  are 
presented  : 

Although  we  have  not  discussed  the  origin  of  man 
in  America,  it  is  apparent  from  the  conclusion  reached 
in  regard  to  migrations  that  the  evidence  adduced 
points  to  tlie  extreme  north-west  Pacific  coast  as  a 
probable  point  of  entry  into  North  America.  Should 
this  conclusion,  which  corresponds  with  a  widely  pre- 
vailing, though  it  must  l)e  admitted  by  no  means 
universal,  opinion  of  tlie  present  day,  l)o  accepted, 
it  does  not  follow  as  a  necessary  inference  that 
South  America  was  peopled  from  the  same  source, 
or  by  the  same  route.  On  the  contrary,  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  data  points,  or  appears  to 
point,  rather  to  the  opposite  conclusion.  The  sup- 
position that  the  southei'u  continent  was  p(>opled 
from  the  northern  demands  an  immense  stretch  of 
time  tluit  seems  incoini)atible  with  the  archaeolog- 
ical features  of  the  latter.  The  comparative  age 
of  the  monuments  of  Peru  and  those  of  Central 
America,  as  estimated  by  the  more  conservative  stu- 
dents, will  not  justify  the  assumption  that  the  civil- 
ization of  the  former  region  was  carried   southward 


ion,  hut 
travplod 

•f  Nortli 
OS poets, 
ision  to 
How- 
ie i)Ossi- 
roin  tho 
some  of 
ions  are 

of  mini 

readied 

iukluced 

ist  as  a 

Should 

I 

ely  pre- 
>  means 
ccepted, 
ce    that 
source, 
careful 
ears    to 
he    sup- 
peopled 
retch  of 
laeolog- 
ive    age 
Central 
ive  stu- 
he  civil- 
uhward 


Conclusion. 


379 


from  the  latter.  Moreover,  the  antiquities  and  lan- 
guages of  the  Isthmian  region  north  to  the  horders  of 
Nicaragua  indicate  a  northward  movement  to  this 
point,  whei'(>  it  seems  to  have  been  met  by  the  move- 
ment from  the  north.  It  appears  also  to  be  generallv 
conceded  that  tho  West  Indies  were  peopled  from  the 
southern  continent.  On  the  other  hand,  thei'e  is  no 
evidence,  archaeologic  or  linguistic,  of  a  northern  ele- 
ment in  the  southern  continent.  Peruvian  architec- 
ture was  peculiar  and  imposing,  and  shows  no  trace 
of  influence  from  Central  America  or  Mexico.  Slight 
indications  of  South  American  or  West  Indian  influ- 
ence are  claimed  to  have  l)een  .liscovered  in  southern 
Florida,  but  a  study  of  the  data  so  far  as  made  leads 
apparently  '  '  he  conclusion  that  this  was  the  result 
of  mere  contact,  and  not  from  a  northward  movement 
of  population,  the  people  even  of  the  Keys,  as  claimed 
by  some  authorities,  pertaining  to  the  northern  races. 
Although  the  attempt  to  determine  the  length  of  time 
man  has  lived  in  North  America  will  be  a  mere  guess 
and  nothing  more,  there  is  no  apparent  reason  for 
carrying  it  back  beyond  a  date  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  various  tribes,  and  possibly  most  of 
the  stocks. 

It  is  possible,  though  the  proof  is  not  yet  sufficient 
to  gain  general  acceptance,  that  there  has  been  pre- 
historic contact  on  the  western  coast  of  Mexico  with 
people  from  the  Pacific  islands  or  south-eastern  Asia. 
While  th(>se  pages  are  being  written,  news  comes  of 
the  discovery  in  the  state  of  Guerrero,  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  Mexico,  of  several  remarkable  groups 
of  ruins  showing  an  advanced  stage  of  culture. 
Among  the  ruins  are  remains  of  large  temples,  a  tab- 


380 


Stiidji  iiiWortk  American  Archaeology. 


h 


•sl 


let  with  liioro<:;lyphs,  the  character,  liowovor,  not 
stated,  a  lofty  arch,  etc.  Should  those  prove  to  he  of 
the  character  indicated,  they  may  have  some  bearing 
on  the  question  of  the  origin  of  this  civilization. 
But  tlie  utmost  tliat  can  l)e  anticipated  in  this  direc- 
tion is  proof  of  foreign  influence  on  the  native  civil- 
ization already  in  the  process  of  development. 

Although  our  treatise  can  claim  lo  he  nothing  more 
than  an  outline  of  the  subject  of  whicli  it  treats,  yet 
enough  has  been  presented  to  show  that  North  Amer- 
ica oit'ers  an  archaeological  field  which  is  yet  to  yield 
a  rich  harvest  to  anticpiarian  research,  a  field  which 
has  been  as  yet  but  little  worked  except  in  some  few 
districts,  but  well  deserves  to  be  thoroughly  cultivated. 
This  becomes  manifest  when  it  is  known  that  the  most 
extensive  group  of  pyramidal  mounds  in  the  Gulf 
States,  a  group  supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  one  of 
De  Soto's  halting  places,  remains  undisturbed  except  by 
the  plow,  and  that  the  largest  group  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  is  yet  unexplored  ;  and  is  emphasized 
when  is  added  the  further  statement,  confirmed  by  abun- 
dant evidence,  that  there  are  hundreds  of  undisturbed 
groups  of  ruins  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  the 
thorough  exploration  of  whicli  would  enable  the 
archaeologist  to  solve  more  than  one  of  the  unsettled 
problems  relating  to  that  region.  It  is  but  recently 
that  the  writer  of  this  work  was  informed  that  there 
are  ruins  along  the  Rio  Panuco  which  bear  the  indi- 
cations of  .advanced  Mayan  art,  and  which,  if  ex- 
plored, might  settle  the  doubtful  questions  regarding 
the  Huastecan  offshoot  from  the  great  Mayan  stock. 


INDEX. 


Acolhnans,  2'M. 

Adiiir,  .Jas.,  70,  144,  145. 

Agriculture,  Mexican  aud  Central 
American,  243. 

Al.lricli,  J.  B.,  173. 

Alejandre,  M.,  on  orijjin  of  Huas- 
tecas,  334. 

Aleuts,  their  ancient  houses,  3H; 
their  migrations,  44. 

Algonquian  faniily,  their  territory, 
48 ;  their  migrations,  158-9. 

Altar  mounds,  77;  Squier  and  Da- 
vis on,  78. 

American  Antiquarian,  157,  158 

American  Archipelago,  ancient 
houses  at,  38. 

Angel  mounds,  Vanderberg  Co., 
Ind.,  130. 

Apaches,  173,  174,  229. 

Archaeological  divisions,  16-21, 

Archaeology,  defined,  1  ;  Ameri- 
can, problems  of,  difficult,  2;  lo- 
cal, 25-8. 

Architecture,  Central  American, 
249-50,  339-42 ;  beginning  of  the 
art,  354. 

Arctic  division,  17,  21,  35-47;  its 
monuments,  35-9;  its  imple- 
ments and  ornaments,  40-3. 

Athapascans,  139;  area  of,  171; 
their  divisions,  174-5 ;  their  mi- 
grations, 174-6. 

Atlantic  division,  defined,  16,  48; 
its  archaeological  features,  49 ;  its 


moiniments,  50;  its  tribes  and 
stocks,  139;  differentiation  of 
tribes  in,  147 ;  entry  of  popula- 
tion into,  148;  prehistoric  migra- 
tions in,  159-68;  its  buildings 
chiefly  wooden,  377. 

Aztalan,  Wisconsin,  ancient  works 
at,  129. 

Aztec  Springs,  Ariz.,  ruins  at,  215- 
17. 

Aztecs,  236,  248,  273,  345. 

Baldwin,  J.  D.,  cited,  316. 

Bancroft,  H.  H,,  cited,  199, 233,  240, 
284,  358;  quoted,  189;  defines 
interior  section,  203;  on  ruins 
at  Quemada,  254;  on  Mexican 
migrations,  314-15. 

Bandelier,  A.  F.,  cited,  240 ;  quoted, 
337 ;  on  archaeology  of  North- 
western Mexico,  22l'-9  ;  on  ruins 
at  Teotihaucan,  261  ;  on  pyramid 
of  Cholula,  268;  on  Mitlan  pot- 
tery, 273;  on  Mexican  migra- 
tions, 318 ;  on  growth  of  Mexican 
arojiitectural  art,  348,  350-2. 

Banner  stones,  115. 

Bartlett  (J.  H.),  on  ruins  at  Casas 
Grandee,  224,  352. 

Rartram  (\Vm.),  cited,  144. 

Bees,  domesticated  in  Central 
America,  244. 

Bessels  (Emil),  182. 

Boas  (Franz),  on  Eskimo  stone 
l381) 


38-2 


Inili  .c. 


Hlructures,  HS-O ;  on  origin  and 
movements  of  KHkirao,  45. 

Boesii  (M.)  cited,  144. 

Bottles  from  inoundH,  wide-moiith- 
ed,  \y2\  lonfj-nei'ked,  04 ;  with 
vviiined-Bnuke  dewijin,  94. 

Bowls  from  mounds,  8S)-)K);  repre- 
senting liuman  heiid,  0:^. 

Boyle  (DiividI,  (luoted,  8S,  102. 

Briiiton,  0.  (i.,  eited,  3l'4  ;  quoted, 
ITiH,  ;')44-5;  on  differences  be- 
tween Atlantic  and  Pacitic  types, 
19-21;  on  the  Toltecs,  238;  on 
spread  of  nagtialism,  3112 ;  on 
origin  Central  American  calen- 
dar, 3()0. 

I>ronze,  11. 

Brownell,  on  Iroquois  traditions, 
1(51. 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
vii,  30,  33,  0-',  84,  103,  110,  IH), 
130,  172,  180,  230,  34(),  359,  371. 

Burial,  methods,  03-77  ;  order  as  to 
(losition  not  usually  observed, 
(15 ;  ill  eastern  Tennessee,  05-70  ; 
in  North  Carolina,  70;  in  box- 
shaped  stone  sepulchers,  70-2 ;  in 
wooden  vaults,  73;  in  (julf  states, 
73 ;  in  ossuaries,  74 ;  inliuma- 
tion,  74;  in  Canada,  74;  in  Ar- 
kansas, 74-5;  use  of  fire  at,  7.5-7, 
144;  peculiar  method  in  north- 
eaKtern  Missouri,  77  ;  in  triangu- 
lar pit,  80  ;  in  urns,  97  ;  beneath 
dwellings,  144 ;  in  sitting  posture, 
144;  removal  of  fiesii  before, 
144;  body  wrapped  in  matting, 
145;  on  north-western  coast,  182. 

Burial  mounds,  01-8;  stratification 
of,  62 ;  north-western  type,  64. 

Buschmann  (J.  C.  E.),  cited,  234  ; 
on  relation  of  Shoshone  and 
Nahuatl  stocks,  316. 


("addoan  stock,  49. 

Caliokia  mount!  (Illinois),  63,  127. 

C^akchiquels,  their  migrations,  328, 
3()5;  traditions,  329;  annals,  364. 

Calaveras  skull,  H»0. 

Calendar,  Mr^-ican  and  Central 
American,  241  3;  not  used  by 
Huastecas,  3.30;  spread  of,  301  ; 
based  on  lunar  count,  363  ;  origin 
of,  367. 

California  (section),  170,  187-202. 

Canon  de  Chelly,  230. 

Caracol  (see  Tower). 

Casa  del  Cobernador,  Uxmal,  291. 

CasaiJrande,  22!,  232. 

Casas  Grandes,  223-9,  232,  349. 

"Castle"  (Castillo),  Cnichen-Itza, 
300. 

Cave  dwellings,  205-8 ;  method  of 
forming,  205;  along  the  Rio 
Mancos,  207. 

Central  America,  defined,  233;  its 
monuments,  276-311  ;  architec- 
ture, 339-42  ;civilization,339«'<se7. 

Chaco  canon,  ruins  in,  219-20. 

Cluiin  mounds,  57. 

Chapanecs,  234 ;  migrations  of,  320. 

Charencey  (H.  de),  cited,  333. 

Charney,  Desir^,  on  the  Toltecs, 
240  ;  his  discoveries  at  Tula,  257; 
on  ruins  of  Teotihuacan,  262-3; 
on  ruins  at  Mitla,  272,274;  on 
ruins  at  Comalcalco,  276-7;  on 
Palenque,  285;  on  ruins  at  Lo- 
rillard  City,  286-7 ;  on  origin  civ- 
ilized races,  348-9. 

Chase,  A.  W.,  on  shell  mounds  of 
Oregon,  185,  198. 

Cherokees,  in  valley  of  Little  Ten- 
nessee, 68,  76 ;  mound-builders, 
82,  153-4. 

Chichen-Itza,  ruins,  296-302;  or- 
namentation  of   buildings,  297 ; 


Index, 


:^83 


mounds  of 


nuns'  palace,  297-8  ;  tower,  UftO; 
castlt!  (caHtillo),  :iO();  ^ymna- 
siuni,  :!UI  ;  house  uf  tigers,  ',i()\  ; 
age  of,  o02. 

(MiicliiMiceiiH,  LMt),  'J40. 

Cliicoiiioztoc,  ;}!!»,  ;].")5. 

Chihuuliua,  its  archaeology,  221-3, 
•j:!2. 

(Miiriqui  types,  180,244. 

I  hdlula,  pyramid  of,  2()7 ;  not  Na- 
hantiaii,  2()8. 

Civilization,  of  Mexican  section, 
■_'40-51 ;  not  limited  hy  tribal  or 
stock  boundaries,  240-1 ;  Central 
American,  8159  <t  »i'q.;  Central 
American,  rise  and  growth  of,  Hod 
d  neq.;  begins  with  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  375;  retroactive,  376. 

Clas-sification,  10-21 ;  difficulties  in 
the  way  of,  11 ;  division  fnto  four 
ages  n(jt  applicable  in  America, 
11;  primary  classes,  12;  chiefly 
geographical,  13-21  (see  Archaeo- 
logical Divisions! ;  as  to  districts, 
29.       * 

Clavigero  (V.  S.),  cited,  239. 

Cocouu'H,  324. 

Cogoliu.loiD.  L.),  323. 

Columns  (see  Pillars). 

Comalcalco,  ruins  at,  276-7  ;  men- 
tion, 285,  347. 

Comanches,  316. 

Comox  (B.  A.),  mounds  near,  184. 

Copan,  ruins  at,  305-10;  types, 
309-10. 

Copper,  among  the  Mexicans,  244 ; 
of  mound-builders  chiefly  from 
Lake  Superior,  113;  distribution 
in  Atlantic  division,  166. 

Copper  articles  from  mounds,  109- 
13;  unusual  type  from  Hopewell 
mound  (Ohio),  110;  with  fig- 
ured designs  (Georgia  and  Il- 
linois), 111-12. 


Coronado  i  F.  V.  de),  231. 
Craniology,  of  doubtful  value,  i.». 
Crees,  160. 
(Cremation,    on    north-west  coast, 

1S4. 
Cukulcan  i  Maya  deity),  257,  293, 

.302,  ;;24,  :!63. 
('ultiire,  development  of,  376  (see 

Civilization  1. 
CushingiF.  H.),  cited,  224. 

Dakota,  effigy  mounds  in,  55. 

Dall  (W.  n.l,  quoted,  18;  on  Aleu- 
tian shell  heaps,  36-7;  on  Cala- 
veras skull,  191. 

Den6  (tribe),  172,  174,  175,  338  (see 
Athapascans). 

De  Soto  (Hernando),  expedition 
of,  140. 

Dixon,  on  Yakutat  burial,  182-3. 

Dog-ribs  (Indian  tribe),  174. 

Dorsey  (J.  O.),  cited,  162. 

Douglass,  A.  E.,  suggestion  as  to 
collections,  29. 

Dumont  (G.  M.),  on  shell  orna- 
ments, 105. 

Du  Pratz  (Le  P.),  on  manufacture 
of  pottery  by  Indians,  96;  on 
Indian  houses,  135-7. 

Effigies,  surface,  149. 

Effigy    mounds,    described,   55-6; 

location,  59;  belong  to  same  era 

as  other  mounds,  148. 
Elephant  mound  (Wisconsin),  24, 

56. 
Elephant    trunk    ornament,    299, 

366;  masks  with,  293. 
Elongate      mounds      (see      Wall 

mounds). 
Engraved  shells,  67,  81,  83,  104-6 

(see  Shell  articles,  etc.). 
Eskimo,  area,  35;  stone  lamp,  37; 

labret,  38;  their  ancient  houses, 


3.S.1 


Iiul 


fj\ 


;{!t;    uln    or  woiuiui's   kiiiff,  41; 

HDiipHtoiii'    |)ots,    42;    julzt',    4-; 

skin  HcrapiT,  4I> ;  Hint  thiki-r,  4.'{; 

tlu'ir  culture  homo,  4:>-7;  tiieir 

nii>{ratioii8,   4');    tlu'ir   smitlicrii 

oxtonsion,  14(). 
KHtiifii,  2:]1. 
Ktowiih  niouiulH  K  W'oruiat,  (ilJ,  KTti, 

111,  114,  l'-'7. 
KviUis,  li,  B.,  (Usciivi'iH  doiibk'  tcr- 

ract'd  niouml  (ArkaimaH),  IIS, 


ancourt  (C.  St.  J. ),  rited,  324. 

iTgusson,  citt  ',  .'?4(). 

t'wkos,  W.  J.,  on  i>iu'l)l<)  cultu, 
3oi). 

ire,  UHL'il  at  burials,  "."). 

lorida,  Bhell  ht-ajw  in,  GO. 

ort  Ancient.  Ohio,  12.5. 

(Kster,  J.  W.,  cited,  .SKi. 

uwke,  (ierard,  on  mound-build- 
in);,  G3-4. 

retwork  at  Mitla,  272. 


Gallatin,  Albert,  on  ()ri>;inal  Al- 
goiuiuian  stock,  I.jS;  on  mi)?ra- 
tionaof  Siouan  tribes,  1(12. 

Garcia,  on  origin  of  Chapanecs, 
320. 

(Jatschet,  A.  S.,  quoted,  1(13, 164-5, 
317;  on  migrations  of  Athapas- 
can tribes,  175. 

Georgia,  effigy  mounds  in,  55. 

Gibbs  (Geo.),  quoted,  317  ;  on  mi- 
grations in  Washington  and  Ore- 
gon, 202;  on  migrations  on  Pa- 
cific side,  372-4. 

Gila  valley  and  Chihuahua,  221-9. 

Glacial  man  (see  I'aleolitliic  age). 

Gold,  244. 

Gomara  (F.  L.  de\  on  migrations 
of  Xicalancas,  384. 


(iovernment,  Aztec  and  Tezcucan, 
248. 

(Jovernor's  house,  Uxmal,  25K>-2. 

(iraveswith  stone  sepulcliers,  71 ; 
seldom  found  in  tiulf  states,  73. 

Greenland,  eastern,  ancii-nt  stime 
houses  of,  3«. 

(irinnel,  (i.  U.,  on  migrations  of 
the  IJlackfeet,  1(10. 

(iucuniatz  (deity  of  (Juate'nalan 
tribes  I,  3(13. 

Guerrero  (Mexico),  recent  discov- 
eries in,  .379. 

liaidah  Indians,  177,  182. 

Hale,  Horatio,  on  orii^inal  homi-  of 
Lenape,  15S;  on  relations  of  the 
Winnebagos,  1(12. 

Hardin  county,  Tennessee,  inclos- 
ure  in,  130. 

Hayden,  F.  V.,  on  migrations  of 
the  Blackfei't,  1(10. 

Hawks'  bells  in  mounds,  86,  142. 

Haywood  (John),  cited,  76. 

Hemenway  expedition,  33. 

Herrera  (A.  de),  cited,  288;  on 
Mayan  traditions,  323-4,  341. 

Hieroglyphs,  246-8,  304;  primitive 
forms  wanting,  343;  the  work  of 
priests,  357 ;  Mayan  and  Mexi- 
can differ,  360;  origin  of  the 
Mayan,  3(10-1,  364,  367. 

Hill  fort.  Perry  county,  Ohio,  127. 

History  of  western  continent,  com- 
mencement of,  7. 

Hodge,  F.  W.,  on  advent  of  Nava- 
jos  in  Arizona.  175;  on  ancient 
irrigation  in  Arizona,  221 ;  on 
origin  of  cliff-dwellings,  230. 

Hoernes,  Moriz,  cited,  13. 

Holmes,  W.  H.,  cited,  88,  103,  108, 
180,  207,    279;     quoted,    .341-2; 


Hi 
■tti, 


1  Tt'zcucan, 

ml,  L'!HV-2. 
iilclicrs,  71 ; 
f  Ktati's,  7lJ. 
{'ii'iit  Ntoiif 

it^rutioiiH  of 

iimte'iialaii 

;ent  discov- 


J2. 

iial  hoiiic  of 

tions  of  tlu' 

Bsee,  inrlos- 

i^ratioiiH  of 

8,  86,  142. 
,  7«. 

33.       . 

,  288;  on 
M,  341. 

;  primitive 

le  work  of 
and  Moxi- 
i'm  of    the 

Ohio,  127. 
inent,  com- 

t  of  Nava- 
on  ancient 
,  221;    on 
;s,  230. 
3. 

8,  103,  108, 
d,    341-2; 


Index. 


885 


method  of  study  followed  by, 
30-2;  on  pottery,  fltS ;  liiH  claHsi- 
tieation  of  ruinH  in  puehlo  hoc- 
tion,  204;  on  oliff-dwellinjfB, 
210-11;  on  Aztecr  Spring'  ruiiiM, 
215-17  ;  on  ruins  at  Teotihuaoan, 
201-2;  on  .Mitlan  art,  2(;!»-70; 
on  ('entral  Amerienn  strnctnreH, 
271);  on  rniiiH  ut  ('hich)-n-Itza, 
2J»7. 

HotiHe  Hites,  133-4. 

HotiHes  of  mound-builders,  133-7; 
material  and  coUHtruetion,  135. 

HuuHtecaH,  234, 321-2, 32<i.  347,  3tUl; 
location  and  migratiouH  of,  332-6. 

HupaH,  174. 

Huron-Irotpiois  Htofk,  154,  15!». 

H"t  rinnH  (mounds),  132;  prolmhiy 
remains  of  wigwams,  133. 

Illinois,  etiigy  mounds  in,  55. 
Inelosures,    121-32;     their    forms, 

121;   their  area,  122;  the  object 

for  which  constructed,  131. 
Indiatui,  mounds  of,  5t). 
Indians,  first  known   inhabitants, 

8-9;  were  mound-builders,  138 

45 ;  no  proof  of  race  preceding, 

14(5,  150. 
Inhumation,  74. 
Iowa,  efligy  mounds  in,  55. 
Iron,  unknown  us  a  metal,  11 ;  in 

mounds,  07,  8.".,  142. 
Iroqnoian  family,  territory  of,  48; 

location,  iry7;  iniurations,  160-1. 
Itzaes,  302  ;  their  mitirations,  325. 
Itzamna   (Maya    deity;,   203,   323, 

3(i3. 
Irri;.:ation,  ancient,  in  .\rizona,  221. 
Izancanac,  284. 

.Tones,  C.  C,  quoted,  76. 
25 


Keaiie,  \.  II.,  on  paleolithic  man, 
6;  on  relation  of  laii^uag«>  and 
race,  371. 

Keary,  tpioted,  6. 

Kentucky,  nioundtt  in,  59. 

Kera  (stock i.  22!». 

Kiva  (see  Kstufai. 

habrets,  181  ;  Kskimo,  38;  use  of, 
spread  north-iasi.  47. 

I, a  llontan,  cited.  144. 

Lamps,  Kskimo,  :>7. 

Landa  (Diego  de),  quoted,  ;{01-2; 
on  Mayan  tradition.  323-4. 

Languagts  iinpiM  i.uii'e  of,  in  ar- 
chaeology,!); as  rat'ial  test,37(t  1. 

I.apham,  1.  A.,  on  age  of  mounds, 
148. 

Lawson  (.John),  cited,  145. 

Lead.  244. 

Le  Due,  Violet,  cited,  340,  341. 

Lenape  migrations,  author's  tln- 
ory,  15(t, 

Le  Plongeon  (Dr.  .\.),  discovery 
by,  345. 

Lewis,  T.  H.,  on  distribution  of 
etfigy  mounds,  148. 

Linguistic  stocks,  of  Atlantic  di- 
visif  n,  48;  in  California  and  Or- 
egon, 187,  200,  372 ;  of  Mexican 
section,  2.33-4. 

Linn  Works,  Union  county,  Illi- 
nois, 12)». 

Lipans  (tribe\  174. 

Lizaua  (  Heriuirdo),  on  early  Mayan 
tradition,  323. 

Lorillard  City,  286-7. 

iiOS  Kdificios,  ruins  known  as, 
251-6;  pyramid  at,  253;  arch  not 
used  at,  255. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  quoted,  3;  on 
migrations,  313. 


38(3 


I)ide.v. 


^ 


<i 


I.unilioltz  ( 1,  oil  ruins  of  Sierra 

Miuire,  222. 

Maize,  24;? ;  discovery  of,  37-i. 
Mams  (.Maya  tribe),  ;522,  ;{31.  :«."). 
Mackenzie,  Alex.,  cited,  17(i. 
Maiico.s  Canon,  rii  ;is  in,  210,  2Iit. 
Man<^ne.s  (("hapanec  tribe  i.  320. 
lManii.«cripts.  jtre-Cohiinbian,  24'). 
Map.s,  necessary,  2ti. 
Mascouti'iis  (tribe I,  l.i9. 
:SIaskR,  107,  181;  snouted.  2i»;5. 
Mason,  O.  T.,  on   aborifrinal   skin 

dressing.  4!t. 
Materials  for  study,  S-IO. 
MatlazincaH  241. 
Maudslay,    \.  V.,  quoted,  305;  on 

ruins  at  Tikal,  303;  on  ruins  at 

(iuirijiua,  304. 
Mayan  days  and  symbols,  242. 
Mayan   stock,  234;   tribes  of,  241, 

321  -2  ;  niitrrations  nf,  32(),  328-38 ; 

orijiin  and  route  of,  360. 
Mayapan,  288,  :;02,  324. 
Mayas,   239  ;      tlieir    earliest    tra- 
dition, ;)2;>;  ori<rin,  3r)4;  priestly 

power  ainonfr,  3,";? ;  in    Mexico, 

359-t)0. 
McCiee.  W.  .!.,  bis  notice  of  "  en- 

trencbed  mountains,"  222. 
Mecbanical  arts  of  Nahuatl  tribes, 

244. 
Menclie  (see  I.oriilard  City). 
Mercer,  H.  C,  cited,  11."),  Hti;  cave 

explorations   by,   150;  on   caves 

of  Yucatan,  342. 
Mesa  Verde,  ruins  of.  208-10,  213, 

220. 
Metates,  22(). 

Metboils  of  study  (see  Study). 
Mexican,  days  and  symbols,  242; 

codices,  272. 


Mexican  section,  170.  233;  its 
boundaries,  233;  stocks,  2;i3  4. 

Mexicans,  their  mechanical  arts, 
244. 

Mexico,  southern,  monuments  of, 
251  ;  nortli-weslern,  anti()uities 
of,  :!42. 

Mijirations,  23.  Prehistoric  in  At- 
lantic division,  bVi-OS;  theories 
re^ardinj;,  150-7;  diri'ction  south, 
soutii-east  and  east,  157.  ( )n  I'a- 
citic  side,  2CK)-2;  of  Mexican  and 
Central  American  tribes,  312  ft 
Keq.;  Bancroft  on,  314-15.  In 
North  America,  chiefly  south- 
ward, .36!) ;  starting  point  of,  .'iOS); 
two  chief  streams,  309;  two  the- 
ories in  regard  to,  309-70 ;  u  slow 
jtrocess,  374;  checked  by  adop- 
tion of  agriculture,  375;  of  cer- 
tain .Mayan  tribes,  .328  r^  xi(j. 

Miudeietl',  Cosmos,  on  origin  of 
ciiir-dwellings,  230-1. 

MindeleH",  Victor,  plan  of  Moki 
village  by,  218. 

Mississippi,  mounds  in,  .")9,  62. 

Mitla,  3.">;  its  ancient  structures, 
2(18-7.") ;  general  character,  209- 
70;  buildings  of  one  story,  271 ; 
roofs  Hat  and  supported  by  col- 
umns, 271  ;  stairways  not  in  use 
at,  271 ;  fretwork  ornamenta- 
tion, 272;  painted  designs,  272; 
its  pottery,  273;  its  age  and  de- 
struction, 273-4 ;  founders  of,  319. 

Mixes,  their  migrations,  320. 

Mixteci;,  241 ;  their  culture  and 
relations,  268;  migrations,  31, S- 111. 

Mt)ki  (tribe),  222,  229,  35!t;  village 
typo,  218. 

Montagnais  itribe),  100. 

Monte  Alban,  33  ;  ruins  at,  2GS. 


0.    L';{;;;    its 
eks,  '23[i~i. 
lanical   arts. 

niiments  of, 
,  aiitiquitii's 

storic  in  At- 
l)S;  tlit'Drii's 
•ction  sdiitii, 
57.  Oil  I'a- 
tlcxican  ami 
ril)es,  'A\'2  el 
314-1').  Ill 
it'fly  Kouth- 
oiiit  of,  ,')fi9; 
JO;  two  tlie- 
!)-70;  a  slow 
'(1  by  adop- 
1575;  of  cer- 
28  fl  x,'(j. 
1   origin    of 

n   of    Moki 

09,  62. 

structures, 
actor,    '_'()!»- 

story,  L'71 ; 
rtctl  by  col- 

not  in  use 
ornamenta- 
'signs,  27:.'; 
iio  ami  (le- 
iler8of,319. 

:!i.'0. 

Iturt"  and 
)iis.;ilS-lii. 
o'.i;  village 


at,  2C.S. 


Jllllci'. 


387 


Month,  lunar,  formerly  in  use 
among  the  Mayas,  3(il>-4. 

Monuments,  important  in  stu<ly  of 
arciiae(jlogy,  9;  term  ilefiiied,  12; 
authors  of,  22-3;  of  Atlantic  di- 
vision, 50;  of  southern  Mexico, 
251  it  .svf?.;  of  Central  America, 
270  it  xr,].;  North  American  com- 
pared with  South  American,  ;!78. 

;\Ioon,  pyramid  of  the  (Teotihua- 
can),259,  2(i0. 

.Moore,  C.  I>.,  cited,  110;  his  ex- 
plorations, 155. 

Moorehead,  W.  K.,ex  )lorationsof, 
78,8:5;  on  pottery  of '  )hio,'.l7;  dis- 
covery of  copper  articles  by,  1 10. 

Morgan,  L.  H.,  on  inclosures,  131 ; 
on  relation  of  Muskhogean  and 
Siouan  tribes,  l(i4. 

Morice,  A.  (i.,  quoted,  3t);  on  cop- 
per among  Dene,  l(l(i,  174;  on 
archaeology  of  Atliapascan  re- 
gion, 171-2. 

^lotolinia  (T.  de  H.),  quoted,  2()0  ; 
on  .Mitla,  274. 

Mouiul-l)uild«'rs,  were  Indians, 
138-45  ;  customs  similar  to  those 
of  tlie  Ividians,  143-45;  iiad  no 
settlem(>nt8  east  of  northern  .M- 
leglianies,  154. 

Mound-building  age,  its  duration, 
147-52;  one  and  unbroken,  149. 

Mounds,  e.vploration  of,  31  ;  va- 
rious chissi's,  51  ;  conical,  51  ; 
elongati^  or  wall  mounds,  51-3; 
pyramidal,  53;  efiigy,  55-();  nr- 
riingciiu'iit  in  grorii)s,  57  ;  in  lini-s 
or  chains,  57;  location,  58;  dis- 
tribution in  Atlantic  division, 
59-(i0;  how  built,  (51-4;  stratifi- 
cation, ()2 ;  age  of,  82,  distribu- 
tion of  articles  and  skeletons  in, 
84-6;  antiquity  and  authors,  138 
46;  Indians  the  authors  of,  138- 


45 ;  notice  of,  by  De  Soto's  chron- 
iclers, 140-1  ;  European  articles 
found  ill,  142;  building  contin- 
ued into  post-European  times, 
143-52;  location  of  the  oldest, 
153;  Mexican  mounds  of  wor- 
ship, 266. 

Murdoch  (.John),  on  Eskimo  adze, 
43,  172;  on  culture  home  ai.d 
movt'inents  of  Eskimo,  45 ;  on 
use  of  labrets,  47. 

Museums,  many  articles  in,  with- 
out satisfactory  history,  24. 

.Muskhogean  family,  48;  migra- 
tions of,  163-4. 

Nachan  ("  City  of  Serpents  "  i,  284. 
Nadaillac  i  .Manpiisdei,  quoted,  64; 

on  classification,  12;  on  age  of 

mnunds,    151;   his  "Prehistoric 

America,"  191. 
Nagualism,  362. 
Nahnatl  (and  Nahuas),  stock,  233- 

4,  241,  268,  316;  tribes,  244,  250; 

movements,  1)54. 
Nascapee  (tribe  ,  160. 
.Navajos,    174;    at   one   time    cliff- 
dwellers,  229. 
Newark  works,  Ohio,  122-5,  129. 
New  York,  mounds  in,  59. 
Niblack,  A.  P.,  on  north-west  coast 

Indians,  19;  on  north-west  coast 

figures,  177-8. 
Nicaragua,  monuments  of,  311. 
Nomenclature,  29. 
Nordenskiold  ((J.),  cited,  215,  219; 

his    classification    of    ruins    in 

Iiueblo  section,   204;    discovt>ry 

by,  212-213. 
North  America,  probably  peopled 

from  Pacific  coast,  378. 
North   Carolina,   mounds    in,   60; 

triangular  pit  in,  80. 


388 


Index. 


h 


'i: 


l^ 


Nortlieriv  (Piu-ilici  section.  17n. 
Xorthmi'u  left  no  impress.  -. 
Xortli   P'U'itic,  coast,   ITO-SH;    fi^'- 

nres,  177-81  ;  totem  po.^ts,  17!l; 

mode  of  burial.  1S2;  cri'inatioii, 

184. 

Oaxaca,  ruins  in.  L'dS. 

Ohio,  effigy  mounil.s  in,  rio. 

O.Mbwas,  loO-GO. 

Oluiees,  31<t. 

Ontario,  pots  from,  88. 

Orilinez,  cited,  284. 

Ore^'on,  .shell  mounds  of,  18,5. 

Orozco  y  Ilerra,  cited,  I!!!!  ;  on  tle- 
Htruction  of  Mitla.  L'7I5;  on  origin 
of  t'liapani'cs.  ;!20;  on  origin  of 
Central  .\mericaii  calendar,  lUi"). 

Otomies,  L':54. 

Ottawus,  \r,9. 

Pacific  division,  IHOrt  srq.;  defineil, 
17  ;  typt-H  of,  difi'er  from  tiiose  of 
the  .\llantio  division,  17-'J0; 
eastern  boundary,  1(50;  sections 
of,  170;  its  structures  were  of 
adobe  and  stone,  377  ;  i)robably 
peopled  before  the  .Vtlantic  sec- 
tion, ,')77. 

Packard,  K.  L.,  cited,  113. 

Painting,  Mayan,  'J45;  Mexican, 
245;  Mitlan",  272-3. 

Palacio,  Diego  de,  on  ruins  of  t-o- 
pan.  .30r)-it. 

PaliMKiue.  Holmes's  study  of,  32-3; 
ruins  at,  27S-S');  tlu'  palace, 
279-82;  other  structures,  282; 
roof  comb  a  singular  fi'ature, 
282;  history,  284;  a  religious 
center,  285. 

Paleographic  objects,  12. 

Paleolithic  age  in  North  America 
not  yet  proven,  5-7 ;  not  dis- 
cussed, 5. 


Palgrave,  F.,  quoted,  2.  < 

Parry  Archipelago,  ancient 
iiouses  in,  38.    ....    ,  ■•-. 

"  Pathway  of  the  i)ead,"Teotihua- 
can,  259- ()0. 

Pefialiel,  Ant')nio,  notes  recent  dis- 
covery at  Tula,  ;!4t). 

Perez  de  Uibas,  on  Sonoran  tradi- 
tions, 1)18. 

Petitot,  K.  F.,  on  copper  among 
the  Dent',  KiO,  174. 

Pigeons,  House  of,  rxmal,  294. 

Pigmies,  supposed  burial  place  mi, 
71. 

Pillars,  at  (iuemada,  252,  255;  at 
Teotihuacan.  2(11  ;  at  Xochi'alco. 
265;  atMitla.  271;  at  Palenque, 
282. 

Pipes  from  mounds  and  graves,  98- 
102;  stemless  type,  98-100;  im- 
age form,  99;  short-necked  type, 
101  ;  ".Monitor."  101  ;  loii.sr-stem 
type,  101  ;  tubular  form,  102. 

Pirindas,  241. 

Popol  Vnh,  328,  .330. 

I'opulation,  Indian,  374-5. 

Pots  from  mounds,  91. 

Pottawotomis  (tribe),  159. 

Pottery,  87-97;  in  Canada  and 
northern  section,  87  ;  in  Missis- 
sippi province,  87-8;  method  of 
tempering,  88;  of  the  (iuif  prov- 
ince, 97;  among  Miivas  and  Mex- 
icans, 245;  of  .Mitla,  273. 

Powell,  .Major  .1.  \V.,  cited,  143; 
on  authors  of  the  mounds,  v-vi ; 
discovery  by,  112;  linguistic 
map  of,  169,  200;  his  description 
of  Colorado  Canon  referred  to, 
209;  on  climatic  conditions  of 
I)ueblo  region,  230;  on  Uto-.\z- 
tecan  family,  234;  on  formation, 
of  languages,  371. 


Index. 


389 


icicnt       — .<3 

,"Tt'()tiliiui- 

8  rec'j'Ut  (lis- 

loraii  tradi- 

jjiiT  amoiii; 

mal,  294. 
rial  place  -if, 

252,  255;  at 
Xoclii-ak'o. 
it  Pak'Diiue, 

1  pravt's,  98- 
!»S-100;  ini- 
lec'ked  typi', 
;  lonji-steiu 
.rill,  102. 

1-5. 

59. 

luula  ami 
in  MissiK- 
iiu'thod  of 

(iulf  prov- 
isaml  Mex- 

•71!. 

cited,  14'i; 

uiuls,  v-vi ; 
lint;iiistio 

U'8crii)tit)ii 

otVrivd  to, 

iiditiotis  of 

oil  rt(i-.\z- 
foriuation, 


■^owers,  Stephen,  on  tribes  of  Cali- 
■'i.  1S7;  on  California  relics, 
197-i),  ,n  iijfations  in  Oregon, 
201-2. 

Poyn'  ,'  (R.  H.),  on  Indian  burial, 
7(5. 

Prescott,  W.  H.,  on  Mexican  his- 
tory, 2;54-S. 

Priesthood,  power  of.  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  249,  357; 
higher  culture  due  to,  35S ; 
among  the  pueblos,  "59;  organ- 
ization of,  358-00;  of  different 
stocks  co-operatt'd,  I?t)2. 

Priests,  inthience  in  advancing  civ- 
ilization, 35t)-t)();  inventors  of 
the  hieroglyphs,  357. 

Pueblo  Bonito,  ruins  of,  219. 

Pueblo,  ruins,  215-20;  where 
found,  215;  builders,  229. 

Pueblo  section,  28,  170,  203-20; 
physical  character  of,  203. 

Pyramid,  of  the  Sun,  259 ;  of  the 
Moon,  259-(i0. 

Pyramidal  mounds,  53,  117-20; 
with  terraces,  118-19;  with 
graded  way,  118;  locations  of, 
121. 

Qiiapaws  (tribe),  131. 

<iueiiiada,  354;  ruins  near,  251-5; 
sliow  analogies  to  those  of  Cen- 
tral America  and  southern  Mex- 
ico, 253-4;  temples,  347;  possi- 
bly partly  Zapotecan,  348. 

Quetzalcoatl  (Mexican  deity),  257, 
284,  302,  319,  3(10,  302. 

tiuiclies,  their  migrations.  320-31. 

(.^uirigua,  303-4. 

Ramsey  (J.  G.  M.),  cited,  70. 
Rawlipeon  (Geo.),  cited,  340. 


Relics  and  remains  defined.  12; 
classilicd,  \:\. 

Ril)as(l''r.  Perez  ile),  on  traditions 
of  iiortli-westt'rii   Mexico,  318. 

Rink  (ll.t,  on  Kskimo  culture 
home,  44  5. 

Rio  Cliico  valk'y,  217. 

Rio  Mancos,  207-8. 

Rosehorough,  .Judge,  on  migra- 
tions in  Oregon,  201. 

Sacs  and  Foxes,  159. 

Sahagun  (  M.  dei,  cited,  250-7,  319, 

3;i:!-4. 
Salado  valley,  ruins  in,  221-2. 
Sapper,  Carl,  cited,  ">04. 
Schoolcraft,  II.  H..    ni  Winnebago 

tradition,  1()3. 
Scluimacher,    Paul,   on   California 

types,  187. 
Sculpture,  Mayan    and    Mexican, 

245;  at  Lorillanl  City,  2Si;. 
Seler,    Ed.,  on  origin  of    Central 

American  calendar,  305. 
Selsertown    mound    (Mississippi), 

119. 
Serjient,    ligure    94,    cf)luiiiiis   250, 

301. 
Sevt'ii  caves,  tradition  of,  355. 
Shell,   articles   of,   from    inoundH, 

103-7;  engrave<l,  105-0;  gorgets, 

lUO;    masks,     107:    heads.     107; 

wampum,  107. 
Shell-heaps,  .\leutian,  ;)()-38. 
Shoshones,  l:'.9,  229,  2:'.4,  310. 
Sierra  Madre,  ruins  in,  222. 
Silver,  244. 
Siouan  stock  and  tribes,  location 

of,  49,   157;    migrations,    102  :i, 

107-8;    not    cultivaton,    of    the 

soil,  107. 
Sonora,     ruins    in    north-eastern 


390 


Index. 


part,  -'2"_';  tnidition  of  trihi'H  in, 

a  18. 
South  AineritiV  uol  peopled  from 

North  America,  ;578;  no  relation 

between  tlu*  civiliziitions  of  the 

two,  371). 
Hquier  (E.  (.J.),  cited,  .'Uti. 
Squier  and    I'avis,   cited,  !•?,  KU, 

1:^8. 
Stairways,  277. 
Starr,  Frederick,  Mitlan  fijiurcH  hy, 

Hfi.'). 
Stephens  V J.  ]..!,  on  palace  at    I'a- 

'eiuiue,  282. 
Stevnson,   Mrs.    M.   ('.,  cited   on 

pueblo  cults,  359. 
.*^toll.  Otto,  cited,  322. 
Stone,  articles,  113-U>;  imajji    ,114; 

arrow-heads,  types  of,  llti. 
Stone  graves,  Indians  buried  in,  72 

(see  Hurial);  area  of,  lo4. 
Study  (of  Archaeolojry),  inethrxls 

of."22-:!4. 
Sun,  pyramid  ot  the  iTeotihuacan  i, 

2o))-"(J0. 
Swallow  ((i.C.i,  on  nionnd-huild- 

ers'  houses,  13."). 

Tallegwi  (Talegai,  identitied  witli 
the  C'herokees,  154. 

Tarascos,  234,  241. 

Tehua  (stock),  22!l. 

Telii),  Fr.,  on  ruins  at  (^uenuida, 
251. 

Temple  of  the  Dwarf,  Fxinal,  2!I3. 

Temples,  Yucatec,  282. 

Ti'nnessee,  mounds  in.  5!l. 

Tenochtitlan    (Mexico    City),    no 
ruins  of  stn    lures  remain,  2()4. 

Teotihuacan,  2t)it,  :!()0;  anticiuities 
at,  259-()3,  270;   its  great   pyra 
mid,5,  25f>;  pathway  of  the  dead, 
25i»;    citadel,   2(Ui,    hewn   stone 


but  little  used  at,  2()()-l  ;  not 
\uhuatlan,  2(il-2;  pre-.\ztecan, 
345. 

Tepanecs,  2:it). 

Textile  fabrics  from  mounds,  108. 

Tezcncans,  23(1;  their  form  of  gov- 
ernment, 248. 

Tikal,  ruins  at,  :!(».') ;  wood  carving 
at,  303. 

Timu(|uanan  stuck,  41). 

'I'laloc  I  rain  goili,  symbols,  2!)i); 
statues  of,  344;  represented  in 
inscriptions,  344. 

Tuliil  iliuiciie  deity),  3()0. 

Toltecs,  2;'.5,  23t),  238-40;  Brinton 
on,  238;  ("lavigeroon,23S) ;  prob- 
ably Mayas,  240;  ( 'barney  on, 
240. 

Torciuemada  i.luau  de),  on  Teoti- 
huacan, 2<)2;  on  the  Zapotecs, 
310;  on  the  Totonacas,  332. 

Totem  posts,  170. 

Totonacas,  234,  241,  332-3,  3;;t)-7, 
347,  ;!<■)(). 

Tower,  Cluchen-Itza,  290. 

Traditions,  use  of,  10;  Mexican 
and  Central  American,  302. 

Tribes,  permancMcy  as  to  Iiabitat, 
2:!. 

Tula,  2;i5,  345-r);  antiquities  of, 
255  7  ;  various  formsof  the  name, 
255;  serpent  columnH  ut,  "5t(; 
sculptured  types,  34(1;  hiero- 
glyphs found  at,  340. 

Tulan,  320,  328-331,  337,  300,3(14-5. 

Tulan  Zuiva,  355. 

Tuolomno  county,  (Jalifornia,  re- 
markable (ILscoveries  in,  180. 

Tutul-Xiu,21l4,  .>-,o,  311. 

Tylor  (K.  H.  i,  cited,  356. 

Types, geographical  distribution  of, 
20,20;  cHsential  features  of,  27. 

Tzutuhils,  migrations  of.  328-30, 


!.'()()- 1;    not 
I»rt'-Aztt'('an, 


HHinds.  108. 
form  of  f;ov- 

■ooil  carving 


'mhols,  L'HS); 
)rt'8i'nt(Ml  in 

5(50. 

■40;  Brintun 
i,-'3l»;  prob- 
'liarncy  on, 

'),  on  Teoti- 
le  Zapotecs, 
as,  3.'5'_'. 

i;i2-:!,  ;i;;t)-7, 

';    Mexican 

to  }ial)ifat, 

iqnitie.s  of, 
if  the  naiu(>, 
ns  at,  ".")(i; 
i-lO;      hicro- 

',  .'i60, 3f)4-5. 

iifornia,  re- 
in, 18!). 


hide.. 


;'.(', 


;iiM 


Ukiadlivinginritisli  America), sin- 
gular stone  Btruclures  at,  30. 

niiiorwoman'.sknife(l':,skimo:,41. 

Uto  Aztecan  stock,  L'33-4,  ;!lt),  ;',;!8, 
350. 

Uxm.il,  ruins  at,  288-0.") ;  its  gov- 
ernor's iiouse,  l.'01-L>;  nunnery, 
-'92-3;  temple  of  the  dwarf,  L'03; 
house  of  pigeons,  204. 

Valencia.  Fray  Martin,  cited,  274. 

Vancouver  [C.j,  on  north-west 
coast  villages,  184. 

Veytia  (M.),  quoted  on  Tula,  257. 

Violet  J.e  Due,  on  Mayan  build- 
ings, 340-1. 

Votan  (Tzental  deity),  tradition 
regarding,  284,  3()0,  .Si)2. 

Walam  Olum,  IGO. 

Wall  mounds,  51-3. 

West  Indies,  peopled  from  South 

America,  379. 
Wheeler,  Lieutenant,  on   ancient 

California  burials,  lOl-ci. 
Whitney  (Prof.),  cited,  190. 
Wick'Tsham    (Judge),    on    stone 

war  clubs,  173. 
Wilson,     Daniel,     on     traditional 

home  of  tlie  Iroquois,  101. 


Winnebago  Indians,  oS;  relations 
of,  1(;2. 

Xil)al!)a  (  Xibalbay),  2S4,  328-0. 

Xicalancas,  310,  ;j;;4. 

Xochicalco,  ruins  at,  2()4-(i ;  exca- 


vations at, 
205. 


2(>4-5;    py  ram  ill 


oi. 


Yocutat,  mode  of  burial,  182. 

Yellow  Knives  (Indian  tribe),  174. 

Yucatan,  people  of,  split  into 
groups  or  tribes,  248;  monu- 
ments of,  287,  339. 

Yuit,  migration  of,  44. 

Zacateeas,  ruins  in,  251. 

Zapotec-Mi.vteo  (stock),  234. 

Zapotecs,  241,  273,  337,348;  their 
culture  and  atlinities,  2(i.s ;  cal- 
endar, 268;  migrations,  318-10; 
origin,  354;  priestly  j.ower 
among,  357;  influence  of,  on 
Mexicans,  305;  pioneers  in  Cen- 
tral American  civilization,  3()t); 
authors  of  tlie  Central  American 
calendar,  367. 

Zoques,  migrations  of,  320. 

Zunis,  222,  229. 


ribution  of, 
ires  of,  27. 
'f.  328-30. 


